Therapeutic use for α1 proteinase inhibitor in hematopoiesis

ABSTRACT

A previously unrecognized fundamental property of α1PI is to regulate the phenotypic composition of circulating and tissue-associated cells derived from hematopoietic stem cells. The present invention comprises screening for various unmodified and modified α1PI&#39;s which are useful in the treatment of abnormalities in the number of cells of myeloid or lymphoid lineage that are associated with Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 (HIV-1) infection, microbial infection, leukemia, solid tumor cancers, atherosclerosis, autoimmunity, stem cell transplantation, organ transplantation, and other diseases affected by cells of the immune system. The interaction of α1PI with its receptors, cell surface Human Leucocyte Elastase (HLEcs) and Lipoprotein Receptor-related Protein (LRP), influences the level of cells of different lineages. Genetic and proteolytic modification of α1PI is used to target these receptors to increase or decrease specific cell populations, as needed, in the various disease states.

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/302,821 filed Nov. 22, 2011 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,612,233, issued Apr. 4, 2017) which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/566,903 filed Dec. 5, 2006 (now abandoned) which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) from Provisional Application No. 60/748,137 filed Dec. 6, 2005.

SEQUENCE LISTING

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted in ASCII format via EFS-Web and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Full length active α₁ proteinase inhibitor (α₁PI, α₁ antitripsin) is composed of 394 amino acids (aa) having a mass of approximately 55 kDa when fully glycosylated (Berninger, 1985). Hepatocytes are the primary source of α₁PI, and in normal, healthy individuals, the range of circulating α₁PI is 20-53 μM between the 5^(th) and 95^(th) percentiles (Brandy et al., 1991; Bristow et al., 1998). However, during the acute phase of the inflammatory response, α₁PI may increase as much as 4-fold to 200 μM (Kushner, 1982). There are four common alleles of α₁PI, and these are synthesized and secreted principally by hepatocytes (OMIM, 2000). However, there are more than a hundred genetic variants, some of which produce a molecule that prohibits secretion, and affected individuals manifest with 10-15% of the normal level of α₁PI in blood (Berninger, 1985). Individuals with this inherited form of α₁PI deficiency, especially males, are notably susceptible to respiratory infections and emphysema, and 80% who survive to adulthood succumb to respiratory failure between the fourth and sixth decades of life (Berninger, 1985). Prevalence is 0.03%, and α₁PI augmentation therapy in affected individuals is the only approved therapeutic application of α₁PI. (OMIM, 2000).

Traditionally, α₁PI has been characterized as a proteinase inhibitor which has highest affinity for soluble granule-released elastase (HLE_(G)). Evidence now suggests α₁PI also interacts with cell surface HLE (HLE_(CS)) (Bristow et al., 2003; Tavor. S. et al., 2005). Both HLE_(CS) and HLE_(G) are synthesized and processed as a single molecular protein; however, HLE is targeted exclusively for the cell surface early in ontogeny and for granule compartmentalization later in ontogeny (Gullberg et al., 1995; Garwicz et al., 2005). Mutations in the HLE encoding gene that result in decreased HLE expression produce periodic cycling in hematopoiesis that affect monocytes in the opposite phase to neutrophils (Horwitz et al., 1999; Horwitz et al., 2004). Mutations that result in increased HLE produce twice fewer absolute numbers of circulating CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ lymphocytes, and 7 times more monocytic cells (Person et al., 2003).

The proteinases and proteinase inhibitors that govern cell motility and hematopoiesis have evolved a different functional pattern in mice from man, but there are many parallels. For example, in mice, it has been shown that high concentrations of HLE accumulate in bone marrow following granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) induced stem cell mobilization (Winkler et al., 2005). This accumulation was found to result from the down-regulation of α₁PI expression. In man, the liver is the primary source of both α₁PI and stem cells. As opposed to its function to inhibit the enzymatic activity of HLE_(G), α₁PI binding to HLE_(CS) induces cell migration in a manner that does not appear to involve enzymatic activity (Wolf et al., 2003). The effect of α₁PI on cell motility is especially profound during migration of stem cells and early progenitor cells. Hematopoiesis begins with stem cell migration from fetal liver through the periphery to the stromal area of hematopoietic tissue, retention, differentiation, and release of maturing progenitor cells back into the periphery. Migration of stem cells to, and myeloid-committed progenitor cells from bone marrow is controlled by HLE_(CS), the chemokine stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1), and the SDF-1 receptor CXCR4 (Tavor. S. et al., 2005; Lapidot and Petit, 2002). Cell migration is dependent on the localization of HLE_(CS) into podia formation at the leading edge of the cell (Tavor. S. et al., 2005; Cepinskas et al., 1999), and podia formation is induced by binding of active α₁PI to HLE_(CS) in a manner that includes co-localization of HLE_(CS) with CD4 and CXCR4 (Bristow et al., 2003). The current method for therapeutic mobilization of myeloid-committed progenitor cells from bone marrow is by the action of G-CSF, and it has been shown that G-CSF mediates this activity by antagonizing CXCR4 and HLE_(CS) (Lapidot and Petit, 2002). The molecular mechanisms that mobilize lymphoid-committed progenitors from hematopoietic tissue are not known. Evidence described in this application now suggests active α₁PI mediates this activity (Examples 1-3 below). Following treatment with α₁PI in animal models, the migration of transplanted human leukemia cells into circulation is decreased, but the migration of stem cells to hematopoietic tissue is increased (Tavor. S. et al., 2005). These results suggest that α₁PI influences the migration of cells into and out of circulation depending, in part, on the stage of differentiation of the cell.

When bone marrow-derived erythroid progenitors cells (burst-forming units-erythroid) are incubated with α₁PI in vitro, growth of immature cells is significantly suppressed (42.5%±5.5%) (Graziadei et al., 1994). In contrast, growth of mature cells is unaffected by α₁PI (3.6%±3.4%). These results demonstrate that in addition to myeloid- and lymphoid-committed progenitors, α₁PI influences the genesis of erythroid-committed progenitor cells dependent on their stage of differentiation.

Previous therapeutic application of α₁PI has been restricted to augmentation in patients diagnosed with inherited α₁PI deficiency for the purpose of ameliorating respiratory distress such as occurs in emphysema and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Considerable interest in producing recombinant α₁PI has resulted in development of several successful expression systems including bacterial and plant cell expression as well as viral vector and oral delivery (Chowanadisai et al., 2003; Luisetti and Travis, 1996). Recombinant α₁PI is in phase I clinical trials for augmentation in individuals with inherited α₁PI deficiency (Flotte et al, 2004), and is in phase II clinical trials for treatment of atopic dermatitis. Recombinant α₁PI has been tested for preventing the onset of type I diabetes in genetically predisposed mice (Song et al., 2004). Nevertheless, there is a need in the art for developing recombinant α₁PI with due consideration of its conformation-dependent function to mobilize either lymphoid-lineage or myeloid-lineage maturing cells. As recognized by the inventor herein, because α₁PI induces cell motility depending on its active or proteolytically modified conformation, various active and modified α₁PI's provide powerful new therapeutics for mobilizing targeted cell subsets through tissue.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention is directed to the use of α₁PI and modified α₁PI to control the phenotypic composition of circulating and tissue-associated cells derived from hematopoietic stem cells. Various modified α₁PI's are also provided. Screening methods and treatment for abnormalities in the phenotypic profile of blood cells are also provided. Such abnormalities are associated with, e.g., HIV-1 infection, microbial infection, leukemia, solid tumor cancers, atherosclerosis, autoimmunity, stem cell transplantation, organ transplantation, and other diseases affected by cells of the immune system. The invention is based, in part, on a previously unrecognized fundamental property of α₁PI to regulate the phenotypic composition of circulating and tissue-associated cells derived from hematopoietic stem cells.

Accordingly, this invention provides a method for identifying a modified α₁PI as suitable for use in treating a disease, disorder or condition in a subject, comprising: (a) producing the modified α₁PI; and (b) measuring a biological activity of the modified α₁PI in a biological assay for predicting effectiveness in treating the disease, disorder or condition in the subject, wherein the modified α₁PI is identified as suitable for treating the disease, disorder or condition from a change in the biological activity relative to a control activity measured for a wild-type α₁PI. In one embodiment, the modified α₁PI is produced by site-directed mutagenesis, proteolysis, or both. In another embodiment, the disease, disorder or condition is selected from the group consisting of HIV-1 infection, bacterial infection, leukemia, a solid tumor, atherosclerosis, an autoimmune disease, organ transplantation, and stem cell transplantation. In another embodiment, the stem cell transplantation is autologous stem cell transplantation.

In another embodiment, the biological assay is selected from the group consisting of an elastase inhibition assay, a receptor co-capping assay, a cell motility assay, a lymphoid-committed progenitor cell mobilization assay, an HIV-1 gp120 antibody cross-reactivity assay, and an HIV-1 infectivity facilitation assay. In another embodiment, the subject is a human or a non-human animal. In another embodiment, proteolysis comprises contacting a wild-type or a recombinant α₁PI with a protease selected from the group consisting of elastase, stromelysin-3, matrix metalloproteinase, collagenase, gelatinase, pepsin, plasmin, urokinase, chymotrypsin, thrombin, CD26, complement component C1, and complement component C3.

In another embodiment, site-directed mutagenesis comprises changing at least two wild-type amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of residues 370-374 and 385 to a non-wild-type residue, wherein one changed residue is at position 385. In another embodiment, at least one amino acid selected from the group consisting of residues 370-374 and 385 is changed from wild-type to glycine, threonine, or a hydrophobic amino acid. In another embodiment, the hydrophobic amino acid is selected from the group consisting of isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine and valine.

This invention provides a modified human α₁PI comprising a change in a wild-type amino acid residue selected from the group consisting of residues 370-374 and 385. In one embodiment, the genetically modified α₁PI further comprises modification by proteolysis. In another embodiment, the wild-type amino acid residue is changed to glycine, threonine, or a hydrophobic amino acid. In another embodiment, the hydrophobic amino acid is selected from the group consisting of isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine and valine. In another embodiment, the modified human α₁PI comprises at least two changes in wild-type amino acid residues comprising a change at position 385 and a change at a position selected from the group consisting of positions 370-374. In another embodiment, the methionine at position 385 is changed to a non-methionine amino acid. In another embodiment, the non-methionine amino acid is selected from the group consisting of glycine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, threonine, and valine. In another embodiment, the modified human α₁PI is capable of a reduced binding activity in an HIV-1 gp120 antibody cross-reactivity assay, relative to a wild-type α₁PI. In another embodiment, the residue changes in the modified human α₁PI comprise the following three amino acid substitutions: Phe372Gly; Leu373Gly; and Met 385Val. In another embodiment, the residue changes in the modified human α₁PI consist of the following three amino acid substitutions: Phe372Gly; Leu373Gly; and Met 385Val.

This invention provides a method of treating a disease, disorder or condition in a subject in need of said treatment, comprising administering an effective amount of an unmodified or modified α₁PI to the subject. In one embodiment, the modified α₁PI is produced by site-directed mutagenesis, proteolysis, or both. In another embodiment, the disease, disorder or condition is selected from the group consisting of HIV-1 infection, bacterial infection, leukemia, a solid tumor, atherosclerosis, an autoimmune disease, organ transplantation, and stem cell transplantation. In another embodiment, the subject is a human or a non-human animal. In another embodiment, the modified α₁PI comprises a change in a wild-type amino acid residue selected from the group consisting of residues 370-374, and further comprises a change in methionine at position 385. In another embodiment, methionine at position 385 is changed to a non-methionine amino acid selected from the group consisting of glycine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, threonine, and valine. In another embodiment, the modified α₁PI is capable of a reduced binding activity in an HIV-1 gp120 antibody cross-reactivity assay, relative to a wild-type α₁PI. In another embodiment, the amino acid changes in the modified α₁PI comprise the following three amino acid substitutions: Phe372Gly; Leu373Gly; and Met385Val. In another embodiment, the amino acid changes in the modified α₁PI consist of the following three amino acid substitutions: Phe372Gly; Leu373Gly; and Met385Val. In another embodiment, the treatment method further comprises administration of HIV-1 antiretroviral therapy. In another embodiment, the effective amount of modified α₁PI is a dose equivalent to about 42 mg/kg of active wild-type α₁PI.

This invention provides a method of treating a disease, disorder or condition in a subject in need of said treatment, comprising administering an effective amount of an active α₁PI to the subject, wherein the disease, disorder or condition is selected from the group consisting of HIV-1 infection, bacterial infection, leukemia, a solid tumor, atherosclerosis, an autoimmune disease, organ transplantation, and stem cell transplantation. In one embodiment, the stem cell transplantation is autologous stem cell transplantation.

This invention provides a method of treating a disease, disorder or condition in a subject in need of said treatment, comprising administering an effective amount of an active α₁PI to the subject, wherein the subject is characterized as having an abnormal or ineffective number of lymphocytes, monocytes, or dendritic cells.

This invention provides a method of treating a disease, disorder or condition in a subject in need of said treatment, comprising administering an effective amount of an inactive α₁PI to the subject, wherein the disease, disorder or condition is selected from the group consisting of bacterial infection, neutropenia and immunosuppression.

This invention provides a method of treating a disease, disorder or condition in a subject in need of said treatment, comprising administering an effective amount of an inactive α₁PI to the subject, wherein the subject is characterized as having an abnormal or ineffective number of granulocytes, monocytes, dendritic cells, eosinophils, or basophils. In one embodiment, the subject is a human or a non-human animal.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1(a-c). Correlation of CD4 lymphocyte levels with active α₁PI, HLE_(CS) and SDF-1 in healthy individuals. (a) Increased active α₁PI and decreased HLE_(CS) ⁺ lymphocytes predict increased CD4⁺ lymphocytes in healthy subjects specifically selected to represent a wide spectrum of α₁PI concentrations. CD4⁺ lymphocytes (%)=50.48+0.27*active α₁PI (μM)−2.67*HLE_(CS) ⁺ lymphocytes (%) (r²=0.937, p<0.05, n=6). (b) Increased active α₁PI and decreased HLE_(CS) ⁺ lymphocytes predict increased CD4⁺ lymphocytes in healthy subjects representing the general population. CD4⁺ lymphocytes (%)=37.80+0.43*active α₁PI (μM)−1.56*HLE_(CS) ⁺ lymphocytes (%) (r²=0.803, p<0.05, n=16). When SDF-1 is included in the model, CD4⁺ lymphocytes (%)=44.46+0.54*active α₁PI (μM)−1.65*HLE_(CS) ⁺ lymphocytes (%)−0.03*SDF-1 (pM) (r²=0.875, p<0.05, n=16). (c) Active α₁PI (▪) and CD4⁺ lymphocytes (●) increase proportionally during the acute phase of an enteric infection in a volunteer who was otherwise healthy.

FIG. 2(a-e). Binding of anti-gp120 antibody to human, but not chimpanzee α₁PI. (a) Monoclonal antibody 3F5 binding to α₁PI in sera from 18 healthy humans and 20 healthy chimpanzees was measured in ELISA. Antibody hound (A_(490nm)) was normalized for the serum α₁PI concentration in each specimen and is represented as A₄₉₀ nm/α₁PI (μM). Binding of 3F5 was 8- to 14-fold greater to human than to chimpanzee α₁PI (p<0.001). Measurements were repeated 6 times using 3F5 and once using monoclonal antibody 1C1. Representative measurements are depicted. Bars represent mean values. (b) The presence of IgG-α₁PI immune complexes in sera (A_(490nm)) was detected in 11 of 38 HIV-1 infected patients, but not in sera from 9 healthy individuals, 20 healthy chimpanzees, nor in 2 chimpanzees 42 months following HIV-1 inoculation. Serum collected from healthy volunteers into tubes containing clot activating additive were excluded from immune complex analysis because of buffer incompatibility. Measurements were repeated at least 3 times, and representative data are depicted. Bars represent mean values. (c) Active α₁PI concentration in HIV-1 infected patients (median 17 μM) was significantly below normal (median 26 μM, p<0.001). Active α₁PI in sera from 20 healthy chimpanzees (median 35 μM) and 2 chimpanzees post-HIV-1 inoculation median (39 μM) was significantly greater (p<0.02) than from 18 human sera (median 26 μM). Active α₁PI was measured in 8 serial dilutions of each serum sample. (d) Inactive α₁PI concentration in HIV-1 infected patients (median 19 μM) was above normal (median 4 μM, p<0.001). (e) After incubating sera from 5 healthy individuals with monoclonal antibody 3F5, active α₁PI (12±7 μM) was significantly lower than in control sera incubated with medium alone (18±7 μM, p<0.001). Bars represent mean values.

FIG. 3(a-d). Corresponding conformation at the 3F5-recognized domains in α₁PI and CD4-complexed HIV-1 gp120. Structures for human α₁PI (1HP7) and CD4-complexed HW-1 gp120 (1RZJ) from the NCBI Molecular Modeling Database (MMDB) were analyzed using Cn3D software (found on the National Center for Biotechnology Information website on the World Wide Web). Small carbohydrate structures were already associated with 1RZJ in MMDB, and the three associated with 1HP7 were added using Adobe Photoshop. HIV-1 gp120 is depicted from two perspectives (a, b) with two α-helices highlighted (aa 21-39 and 306-313). The gp120 peptide immunogen used to raise 1C1 and 3F5 (aa 300-321) is located at the C-terminus of gp120, and the linear segment YKVV (aa 315-318, SEQ ID NO: 1) along with the M-17 and the oligosaccharide-linked NGT (aa 92-94), are within 8A° of the conformational epitope. The gp120-homologous domain in is also located at the C-terminus of the protein, and is depicted from two perspectives (c, d) with the highlighted antiparallel β-sheet strand at the base of the cleft (aa 369-389), as well as the α-helices that form the mouth of the cleft (aa 28-44 and 259-277). M-385, which distinguishes human from chimpanzee α1PI, is indicated along with GKVV (aa 386-389, SEQ ID NO: 2), the oligosaccharide, and oligosaccharide-linked NST (aa 46-48). The proteinase reactive site M-358, is indicated for orientation.

FIG. 4. Correlation between CD4⁺ lymphocytes and active α₁PI levels in HIV-1 infected patients. In 23 patients with <500 HIV RNA copies/ml, CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels correlate with active α₁PI. Three parameter sigmoid regression yields CD4 (cells/μl)=1211/(1+e^(−(active α1PI(μM)−25)/11)), r²=0.927, n=23), CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels also correlate with inactive α₁PI. Two parameter exponential decay regression yields CD4 (cells/μl)=834*e^(−0.034 inactive α1PI(μM)), r²=0.906, n=23). Patients receiving protease inhibitor therapy are depicted by squares. All other patients are depicted by circles. In 13 patients with >500 HIV RNA copies/ml, no correlation was found to exist between CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels and active α₁PI.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Definitions:

Human α₁PI—Alpha₁-Proteinase Inhibitor (Human) is a sterile, stable, lyophilized preparation of highly purified human alphas-proteinase inhibitor (α₁PI) also known as alpha₁-antitrypsin derived from human plasma. There are three products of alphas-Proteinase Inhibitor (Human) that are currently FDA approved for treatment. Prolastin® (found on the Prolastin website on the World Wide Web) produced by Talecris Biotherapeutics (found on the Talecris or Grifols websites on the World Wide Web), Zemaira® (found on the Zemaira website on the World Wide Web) produced by ZLB Behring (found on the CSL Behring website on the World Wide Web), and Aralast™. (found on the Aralast website on the World Wide Web) produced by Baxter Healthcare Corp.

Active α₁PI—the fraction of α₁PI in plasma or other fluids that has the capacity to inhibit elastase activity.

Inactive α₁PI—the fraction of α₁PI in plasma or other fluids that does not have the capacity to inhibit elastase activity. Active α₁PI may be inactivated by proteolytic cleavage, proteinase complexing, antibody complexing, or oxidation.

Genetically modified α₁PI—active α₁PI synthesized from the cDNA encoding human α₁PI which has been modified by site-directed mutagenesis. There are no current recombinant products that have been FDA approved for treatment.

Proteolytically modified α₁PI—active or genetically modified human π₁PI which has been further modified by limited proteolysis to generate fragments. Proteolytic modification inactivates α₁PI.

Pharmaceutical Composition—When formulated in a pharmaceutical composition, the therapeutic compound of the invention can be admixed with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. The phrase “pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to molecular entities and compositions that are “generally regarded as safe”, e.g., that are physiologically tolerable and do not typically produce an allergic or similar untoward reaction, such as gastric upset, dizziness and the like, when administered to a human. Preferably, as used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable” means approved by a regulatory agency of the Federal or a statement government or listed in the U.S. Pharmacopeia or other generally recognized pharmacopeia for use in animals, and, more particularly, in humans. The term“carrier” refers to a diluent, adjuvant, excipient, or vehicle with which the compound is administered. Such pharmaceutical carriers can be sterile liquids, such as water and oils, including those of petroleum, animal, vegetable or synthetic origin, such as peanut oil, soybean oil, mineral oil, sesame oil and the like. Water or aqueous solution saline solutions and aqueous dextrose and glycerol solutions are preferably employed as carriers, particularly for injectable solutions. Alternatively, the carrier can be a solid dosage form carrier, including but not limited to one or more of a binder (for compressed pills), a glidant, an encapsulating agent, a flavorant, and a colorant. Suitable pharmaceutical carriers are described in “Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences” by E. W. Martin.

1. Treatment Population:

Active α₁PI promotes migration of lymphocytes and monocytic cells expressing HLE_(CS) (Bristow et al., 2003) (Examples 1-3 below). Inactive α₁PI promotes migration of neutrophils and cells expressing the LDL-receptor related protein, LRP (Kounnas et al., 1996; Weaver et al., 1997), Treatment with active human α₁PI is indicated in individuals manifesting abnormal numbers of functional lymphocytes, monocytic cells, or dendritic cells such as in HIV-1 disease, stem cell transplantation, solid organ transplantation, autoimmune exacerbations, diabetes, leukemia, lymphoma, solid tumors, and, atherosclerosis. Treatment with inactive human α₁PI is indicated in individuals manifesting abnormal numbers of functional granulocytic, monocytic cells, dendritic, eosinophilic, or basophilic cells such as in microbial infection, neutropenia, and immunosuppressed patients. Treatment outcome is determined as described below in Section 7 of the Detailed Description.

2. Treatment Regimen:

According to the Prolastin® Product Monograph (found on the Prolastin website on the World Wide Web), the Zemaira® prescribing information literature, and the Aralast™. prescribing information, the recommended dosage for α₁PI is repeated weekly infusions of 60 mg/kg at a rate of 0.08 ml/kg/minute leading to the historical target threshold of 11 μM α₁PI in serum. The ideal blood threshold is 35 μM α₁PI, but this level has not been achieved therapeutically. Delivery is traditionally by infusion, but recombinant α₁PI is also produced for ingestion (Chowanadisai et al., 2003).

The specific activity of Zemaira® is 70%, Prolastin® is 35%, and Aralast™ is 55% where specific activity is defined as inhibition of porcine pancreatic elastase (PPE) as described in the package insert. Thus, the recommended dose of Zemaira® α₁PI may be stated as 42 mg/kg active α₁PI, Prolastin® as 21 mg/kg, and Aralast™ as 33 mg/kg active α₁PI. Conversely, the inactive fraction of Zemaira® is 30% or 18 mg/kg, of Prolastin® is 65% or 39 mg/kg, and of Aralast is 45% or 27 mg/kg

The dosage of genetically modified α₁PI is determined by its capacity to inhibit PPE as described in Section 6 of the Detailed Description (see also, U.S. Pat. No. 6,887,678). In accordance with the recommended treatment regimen using wild-type α₁PI, subjects are infused with genetically modified α₁PI at a dosage that is in the range of 1 to 420 mg/kg active α₁PI, with a target blood threshold of 35 μM genetically modified α₁PI. In some cases, either active or genetically modified α₁PI are further modified by limited proteolytic cleavage to generate fragments that are chemotactic for myeloid-lineage cells. For example, in microbial infections that attend neutropenia, proteolytically modified α₁PI is used to recruit neutrophils into infected tissue. In this case, individuals are infused with proteolytically modified α₁PI at the concentration that is equivalent to 39 mg/kg inactive α₁PI. In addition to being monitored for PPE inhibitory activity, proteolytically modified α₁PI is screened as described in Section 3.2 of the Detailed Description for its capacity of to induce receptor capping and cell motility of myeloid-lineage blood cells such as neutrophils.

3. Recombinant α₁PI:

In addition to plasma-derived α₁PI, recombinant α₁PI has the capacity to mobilize progenitor cells. A bioengineered form of α₁PI has been shown to partition into two cleavage fragments (Jean et al., 1998), and an α₁PI-insulin-like growth factor chimera has been shown to induce chemotaxis (Sandoval et al., 2003). Modifications of recombinant α₁PI provide an improvement specific to HIV-1 and other diseases for mobilization of specific progenitor cells.

3.1 Structural Features of α₁PI:

The following represents the full length amino acid sequence for α₁PI (accession # K01396) including the 24 aa signal peptide (SEQ ID NO: 3):

-24 MPSSVSWGIL LLAGLCCLVP VSLA   1 EDPQGDAAQK TDTSHHDQDH PTFNKITPNL AEFAFSLYRQ LAHQSNSTNI  51 FFSPVSIATA FAMLSLGTKA DTHDEILEGL NFNLTEIPEA QIHEGFQELL 101 RTLNQPDSQL QLTTGNGLFL SEGLKLVDKF LEDVKKLYHS EAFTVNFGDT 151 EEAKKQINDY VEKGTQGKIV DLVKELDRDT VFALVNYIFF KGKWERPFEV 201 KDTEEEDFHV DQVTTVKVPM MKRLGMFNIQ HCKKLSSWVL LMKYLGNATA 251 IFFLPDEGKL QHLENELTHD IITKFLENED RRSASLHLPK LSITGTYDLK 301 SVLGQLGITK VFSNGADLSG VTEEAPLKLS KAVHKAVLTI DEKGTEAAGA 351 MFLEAIPMSI PPEVKFNKPF VFLMIEQNIK SPLFMGKVVN PTQK

The known Asn-linked carboxylation sites (denoted in bold underlined letters) are found at aa 46, 83, and 247 (Nukiwa et al., 1986; Jeppsson et al., 1985). The oligosaccharide structure at each site is either tri-antenary or bi-antenary, and the various combinations give the protein a characteristic electrophoretic charge denoted as phenotypic subtypes of the four common genotypic alleles, M1A, M1V, M2, and M3.

The frequencies in US Caucasians of M1A, M1V, M2, and M3 are 0.20-0.23, 0.44-0.49, 0.1-0.11, and 0.14-0.19, respectively, accounting for 95% of this population (Jeppsson et al., 1985). M1A is thought to be the oldest variant, and M1V has a single aa substitution, at position 213, Ala to Val. The M3 allele has a single aa difference with M1V, Glu to Asp at position 376. The M2 allele has a single aa difference with M3, Arg to His at position 101.

More than a hundred genotypic alleles have been identified, but except for the S and Z alleles, most of them are exceedingly rare (OMIM, 2000). The S allele, frequency 0.02-0.04, has a single aa substitution at position 264, Glu to Val, and individuals homozygous for this allele manifest 60% normal α₁PI blood levels, but are not at risk for emphysema or other known diseases except in combination with the Z allele (Brantly et al., 1991; Sifers et al., 1988). The Z allele, frequency 0.01-0.02, has a single aa substitution at position 342, Glu to Lys, and individuals homozygous for this allele manifest 1.0% normal α₁PI blood levels, and are at risk for emphysema and autoimmunity.

3.2 Functional Properties of α₁PI:

There are three distinct activities of α₁PI that are determined by sites in the C-terminal region of α₁PI defined herein as aa 357-394 (SEQ ID NO: 4).

PMSI PPEVKFNKPF VFLMIEQNTK SPLFMGKVVN PTQK

The crystal structure for active α₁PI (1HP7, NIH NCBI Molecular Modeling DataBase mmdbId:15959) is depicted in FIG. 3 with Met (aa 358) and Met (aa 385) designated. The β-sheet formation of the C-terminal region of α₁PI (aa 369-394) is designated. Two α-helix domains (aa 27-44 and 257-280) shield the β-sheet domain in a manner resembling the antigen-binding cleft of the major histocompatibility complex.

The first activity of α₁PI is its well characterized proteinase inhibition which is a property only of active, uncleaved α₁PI. The reactive site for this activity is Met (aa 358) contained in the domain Pro-Met-Ser-Ile-Pro (PMSIP, aa 357-361, SEQ ID NO: 5). Active α₁PI may be inactivated by proteinase complexing, cleavage, or oxidation of Met (aa 358). Interaction at the scissile bond Met-Ser (aa 358-359) may be mediated by many proteinases including HLE_(G). The two cleavage products of α₁PI may dissociate under some circumstances, but may remain associated in a new, rearranged configuration that may irreversibly incorporate HLE_(G), but may not incorporate other proteinases, for example metalloproteinases (Perkins et al., 1992).

The tertiary structure for the rearranged α₁PI configuration has not been solved (Mellet et al., 1998); however, X-ray diffraction and kinetic analyses of cleaved a₁PI suggest that the strand SIPPEVKFNKP (aa 359-369, SEQ ID NO: 6) may separate 70A° from its original position and insert into the β-sheet formation on the opposite face of the molecule (β-sheet A) in a manner that would significantly alter proteinase and receptor recognition (Elliott et al., 2000). Thus, four configurations of the C-terminal region of α₁PI are thought to occur (Table 1).

TABLE 1 Functions of the C-terminal region of α₁PI Proteinase Lymphoid cell Myeloid cell anti-gp120 HIV-1 entry Inhibition migration migration binding co-factor Native configuration in the active α₁PI + + − + + Rearranged configuration in cleaved α₁PI − − Unknown + − Complexed with HLE in cleaved α₁PI − − + Unknown − Independent of other α₁PI cleavage products − Unknown + Unknown Unknown

Because the cleaved configuration of α₁PI lacks proteinase inhibitory activity, in deficient concentrations of active α₁PI, the result is emphysema and respiratory-related infections which are facilitated by the presence of certain environmental factors, cigarette smoke, microbial factors, and inherited mutations that prohibit successful production of active α₁PI.

A second activity of α₁PI is the stimulation of cell migration, and this activity is a property of both cleaved and uncleaved α₁PI. Cleaved α₁PI is recognized by LRP, and stimulates migration of myeloid-lineage cells including neutrophils and monocytic cells (Joslin et al., 1992). Active, uncleaved α₁PI is recognized by HLEcs and stimulates migration of lymphoid-lineage cells and myeloid-committed progenitor cells (Bristow et al., 2003). Cell migration is nitiated by α₁PI-induced co-capping of receptors such as HLEcs. CXCR4, and CD4 into podia formation (Cepinskas et al., 1999; Banda et al., 1988). In addition to the participation of podia formation during cell migration, this configuration is also the preferred binding site for HIV-1 (Bristow et al., 2003). The reactive site in α₁PI for this activity is Phe-Val-Phe-Leu-Met (FVFLM, aa 370-374, SEQ ID NO: 7).

A third non-physiologic activity of α₁PI is binding to antibodies reactive with HIV-I envelope protein gp120, and this activity results in inactivation of α₁PI and blocking of the other two activities described above. The anti-gp120 monoclonal antibodies ICI (Repligen, Inc., Cambridge, Mass.) and 3F5 (hybridoma culture supernatant, 0085-P3F5-D5-F8, Dr. Larry Arthur, NCI-Frederick) were previously shown to be reactive with an epitope near the gp120 C5 domain (Moore et al., 1994). The antibody crossreactive site of human α₁PI is contained in the domain Phe-Leu-Met-Ile-Glu-Gln-Asn-Thr-Lys-Ser-Pro-Leu-Phe-Met-Gly-Lys-Val-Val (FLMIEQNTKSPLFMGKVV, aa 372-389, SEQ ID NO: 8) (Bristow et al., 2001) Chimpanzee α₁PI, which differs from human α₁PI by a single amino acid, Val (aa 385), does not bind anti-gp120, consistent with the ability of chimpanzees to resolve HIV-1 infection and regain normal CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels. This suggests that the anti-gp120 cross-reactive site in human α₁PI is determined primarily by the Met residue (aa 385).

3.3 Expression of Recombinant α₁PI:

Any method known in the art may be used for producing genetically modified α₁PI's according to the invention. Two preferred methods are briefly described below for producing such recombinant α₁PI's; one method allows expression of α₁PI in rice cells and the other allows bacterial expression. The cDNA encoding human α₁PI is obtained from a human cDNA bank by and amplification of the fragment in accession number KO 1396 using two PCR primers: N-terminal primer 5′ GAGGATCCCCAGGGAGATGCTGCCCAGAA 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 9) and C-terminal primer 5′CGCGCTCGAGTTAI I ITTGGGTGGGATTCACCAC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 10) as previously described (Courtney et al., 1984; Terashima et al., 1999; Jean et al., 1998).

For expression in rice cells, expression cassettes are prepared by using a 1.1 kb NheI-PstI fragment, derived from p1AS1.5, is cloned into the vector pGEM5zf− (Promega, Madison, Wis.): ApaI, AatII, SphI, NcoI, SstII, EcoRV, SpeI, NotI, PstI, SalI, NdeI, SacI, MluI, NsiI at the SpeI and PstI sites to form pGEM5zf-(3D/NheI-PstI). The GEM5zf-(3D/NheI-PstI) is digested with PstI and SacI and ligated in two nonkinased 30mers with the complementary sequences 5′ GCTTG ACCTG TAACT CGGGC CAGGC GAGCT 3 ‘ (SEQ ID NO: 11) and 5’ CGCCT AGCCC GAGTT ACAGG TCAAG CAGCT 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 12) to form p3DProSig. A 5-kb BamHI-KpnI fragment from lambda clone OOSgl A is used as a terminator. Hygromycin resistance is obtained from the 3-kb BamHI fragment containing the 35S promoter-Hph-NOS of the plasmid pMON410.

Microprojectile bombardment is applied for transforming a Japonica rice variety TP309. The bombarded calli are then transferred to NB medium containing 50 mg/l hygromycin and incubated in the dark at 25° C. for 10±14 days. Rice cells are cultured at 28° C. (dark) using a shaker with rotation speed 115 rpm in the AA(+sucrose) media. The medium is changed every 5 days to maintain cell lines. AA(−sucrose) is used for α₁PI expression. A bioreactor is used for 2-1-scale culture. The reactor is operated at 28° C. (dark) at agitation speed 30±50 rpm with aeration rate 100 ml/min. During the growth phase (10 days), the pH of the media is controlled at pH 5.7, while in the production phase the PH is 5.7±6.3 (un-controlled).

Recombinant α₁PI is purified using polyclonal anti-human α₁PI antibody (Enzyme Research Laboratories, South Bend, Ind.) immobilized to CNBr-activated Sepharose 4B with a concentration of 1.5 mg/ml gel. The gel (3.5 ml) is packed in a column (inner diameter 1.26 cm), and equilibrated with 50 mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.6). Crude medium is applied to the column at 1.0 ml/min. Absorbance at 280 nm is monitored at the outlet of the column. After washing with the equilibrium buffer, α₁PI is eluted with 0.1N HCl solution. A peak fraction is collected, and its pH is immediately adjusted with 1M Tris-HCl buffer (pH 8.0). These methods yield an estimated 5.7 mg α₁PI/g dry Cell.

Alternatively, the α₁PI cDNA are expressed in Escherichia coli strain BL21 transformed with pDS56α₁PI/hf (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). Protein expression is induced by addition of 1 mM isopropyl b-D-thiogalactoside, and cultures are grown overnight at 31° C. The cells are washed in metal-chelation chromatography binding buffer (5 mM imidazole/0.5M NaCl/20 mM Tris, pH 7.9) and disrupted by cavitation. The clarified and filtered supernatants containing soluble α₁PI variants are applied to a Ni²⁺-agarose column, and bound proteins are eluted with 100 mM EDTA. The eluates are adjusted to 3.5M NaCl and applied to a phenyl-Sepharose column. The bound α₁PI/hf is eluted with 20 mM Bis-Tris, pH 7.0 and concentrated (4 mg/ml final) by diafiltration in the same buffer.

4. Genetic Modification of Active α1PI:

Recombinant active α1PI is expressed according to the procedures described in Section 3 of the Detailed Description. Wild-type human α₁PI is modified genetically to diminish or enhance sequence-specific reactive sites. For example, in HIV-1 disease, therapeutic α1PI variants maintain its inhibition of soluble HLE_(G) and its induction of cell migration, but diminish its capacity to facilitate HIV-1 entry and bind antibodies reactive with HIV-1.

The genetic modifications of interest are described in Section 4.1 of the Detailed Description. Site-directed mutagenesis of active α₁PI is performed using standard procedures which are well known in the art (e.g., Parfrey et al., 2003; Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, 2002). For example, the DNA sequence encoding the human α₁PI signal peptide in pDS56a₁Pl/hf is replaced with sequences encoding the epitope (FLAG)-tag by insertion of the annealed complimentary oligos

5′ CTAGAGGATCCCATGGACTACAAGGACGACGATGACAAGGAA 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 13) and 5′GATCTTCCTTGTCATCGTCGTCCTTGTAGTCCATGGGATCCT 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 14). The resulting cDNA is subcloned into pDS56-6His to generate pDS56α1Pl/hf. To generate pDS56α1Pl/hf carrying an amino acid substitution, the DNA sequences encoding the wild-type amino acid are replaced by the complimentary oligos coding for the amino acids described in Section 4.1 of the Detailed Description. The resulting ORFs directed cytosolic expression of the recombinant proteins initiating with a Met followed by the His and FLAG tags and the mature sequences of mutant α1 PI.

4.1

Genetic modification within the domain that determines cell migration (FVFLM, aa 370-374, SEQ ID NO: 7) is prepared by site-directed mutagenesis of specific amino acids:

4.1.1 Phe (aa 370) to Ile, Leu, Val, Tyr, or Gly.

4.1.2 Val (aa 371) to Phe, Leu, Ile, or Gly.

4.1.3 Phe (aa 372) to Ile, Leu, Val, Tyr or Gly.

4.1.4 Leu (aa 373) to Ile, Val, Phe, or Gly.

4.1.5 Met (aa 374) to Phe, Thr, Ile, Leu, Val, or Gly.

4.2

Modification within the domain that determines HIV-1 gp120 antibody recognition is prepared by site-directed mutagenesis of Met (aa 385) to Phe, Thr, Ile, Leu, Val, or Gly.

5. Proteolytic Modification of Active or Recombinant α₁PI:

Proteolytic fragments of chemotactic molecules, such as complement, thrombin, and α₁PI, impart a primordial system of immune clearance mediators producing discrete classes of cellular responses. The appearance of variant chemotactic molecules avails immediate recruitment of pathogen-responsive immune cells as a direct function of the proteases specific to each pathogen. To replicate this system for therapeutic application, active or recombinant α₁PI are modified proteolytically to diminish or enhance conformation-specific reactive sites.

Cleavage of α₁PI producing inactive α₁PI maybe accomplished using a variety of proteinases. Cleavage by elastase is between Met-Ser (aa 358-359) (Berninger, 1985), and by stromelysin-3, a stromal cell-derived matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), between Ala-Met (aa 350-351) (Pei et al., 1994). Cleavage of α₁PI by neutrophil collagenase or gelatinase is between Phe-Leu (aa 352-353) producing inactive α₁PI (Desrochers et al., 1992). Other MMPs have also been shown to cleave α₁PI (Mast et al., 1991). Significantly, α₁PI is cleaved by proteinase derived from pathogenic organisms such as Pseudomonas elastase (Barbey-Morel and Perlmutter, 1991).

The C-terminal α₁PI proteolytic fragments acquire attributes that allow interaction with the LDL receptor-related protein (LRP) (Poller et al., 1995) and other receptors that recognize a pentapeptide sequence FVFLM (aa 370-374, SEQ ID NO: 7) (Joslin et al., 1992) in a manner that produces, chemotaxis of neutrophils, increased LDL binding to monocytes, upregulated LDL receptors, increased cytokine production, and α₁PI synthesis (Banda et al., 1988; Janciauskiene et al., 1999; Janciauskiene et al., 1999). It has been shown that fibrillar aggregates of the C-terminal fragment of α₁PI facilitate uptake of LDL by LRP on the hepatolastoma cell line HepG2 (Janciauskiene and Lindgren, 1999), and these fragments participate in atherosclerosis (Dichtl et al., 2000).

Specifically, active or recombinant α₁PI are incubated at the relevant optimal conditions with one or a combination of pepsin, plasmin, urokinase, chymotrypsin, thrombin, CD26, matrix metalloproteinases, complement components C1 or C3, and other proteinases that facilitate the generation of chemotactic fragments of α₁PI (Methods in Enzymology, 1970; Hooper, 2002). Cleavage of α₁PI is then terminated by changing the optimal conditions in the proteinase mixture to conditions that prevent proteinase activity, for example at temperature or pH extremes (Methods in Enzymology, 1970; Hooper, 2002).

6. Functional Capacity of Active, Genetically Modified, and Proteolytically Modified α₁PI:

Various unmodified and modified α₁PI's are screened and selected for use in treatment of specific diseases by determining their capacity in vitro and/or in vivo to perform the following functions in the following assays:

6.1 Inhibit Elastase:

The procedures for measuring the capacity of α₁PI to inhibit soluble forms of porcine pancreatic elastase (PPE) or HLE_(G) are well established (U.S. Pat. No. 6,887,678) (Bristow et al., 1998). Briefly, PPE is incubated for 2 min with α1PI, and to this mixture is added, the elastase substrate succinyl-L-Ala-L-Ala-L-Ala-p-nitroanilide (SA³NA). Results are detected by measuring the color change at 405 nm.

In complex mixtures, α₁PI competes for binding to PPE with other proteinase inhibitors or ligands present in the mixture. For example, PPE has higher affinity for α₂ macroglobulin (α₂M) than for α₁PI, and when complexed with α₂M, PPE retains the ability to cleave small substrates. In the presence of α₂M, PPE binds α₂M and is protected from inhibition by α₁PI, and the complexation of PPE with α₂M can be measured by detecting the activity of PPE using SA³NA. To measure the inhibitory capacity of α₁PI in complex mixtures such as serum, two-fold serial dilutions of serum are incubated with a constant, saturating concentration of PPE. The added PPE is bound by α₂M and α₁PI in the diluted serum dependant on their concentrations, the greater the concentration of serum, the greater the concentration of α₂M and α₁PI. Since there is more α₁PI in serum than α₂M, as serum is diluted, α₂M is diluted out, and in the absence of α₂M, PPE is bound and inhibited by α₁PI. The complexation of PPE with α₁PI can be measured by detecting the loss of activity of PPE using SA³NA. As serum is further diluted, α₁PI is also diluted out, and the loss of complexation of PPE with α₁PI can be measured by detecting the gain in activity of PPE using SA³NA. The plot of PPE activity versus serum dilution makes a V shaped curve, PPE activity first decreasing as serum is diluted, and then increasing as serum is further diluted. The nadir of PPE activity is used to calculate the precise concentration of active α₁PI in the mixture (Bristow et al., 1998).

6.2 Induce receptor co-capping and cell motility:

The procedures for inducing receptor capping have been described (Bristow et al., 2003). The cells of interest (monocytes, lymphocytes, neutrophils, or other blood cells, e.g. leukemic cells) are isolated from blood or tissue using standard techniques (Messmer et al., 2002) and examined for reactivity with α₁PI.

To examine receptor capping, cells are incubated with active or modified α₁PI for 15 min in humidified 5% CO₂ at 37° C. Cells are applied to the sample chambers of a cytospin apparatus (Shandon Inc. Pittsburgh, Pa.), and slides are centrifuged at 850 rpm for 3 min. Slides are fixed by application of 500 μl 10% formalin to the sample chambers of the cytospin apparatus followed by an additional centrifugation at 850 rpm for 5 min. Slides are incubated for 90 min at 20° C. with fluorescently-labeled monoclonal antibodies having specificity for the receptors of interest and examined by microscopy.

Cell motility results from selective and sequential adherence and release produced by activation and deactivation of receptors (Wright and Meyer, 1986; Ali et al., 1996), consequent polar segregation of related membrane proteins to the leading edge or trailing uropod, and both clockwise and counterclockwise propagation of Ca⁺⁺ waves which initiate from different locations in the cell (Kindzelskii and Petty, 2003). Thus, several aspects of the complex process may be quantitated. The most direct and most easily interpreted method for quantitating cell motility is the enumeration of adherent cells in response to a chemotactic agent such as α₁PI.

For detecting adherence, sterile coverslips are washed in endotoxin-free water, and to each coverslip is delivered various dilutions of active or modified α₁PI. Cells are subsequently delivered to the coverslips, mixed to uniformity with α₁PI, and incubated for 30 min in humidified 5% CO₂ at 37° C. without dehydration. After stringently washing the coverslips free of non-adherent cells, adherent cells are fixed by incubation for 10 min at 20° C. with 4% paraformaldehyde containing 2.5 μM of the nuclear staining fluorescent dye, acridine orange (3,6-bis[dimethylamino]acridine. Slides are examined by microscopy, and means and standard deviations are determined by counting adherent cells in at least three fields/coverslip.

6.3 Mobilize Lymphoid-Committed Progenitor Cells:

In the nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency (NOD/SCID) mouse model, bone marrow-engrafted human cells can be mobilized by G-CSF (Petit et al., 2002). This model is adapted to assess the capacity of active or modified α₁PI to mobilize human lymphoid- or myeloid-lineage cells, respectively.

NOD/SCID mice are housed under defined flora conditions in individually ventilated (HEPA-filtered air) sterile micro-isolator cages. Human chimeric mice are obtained after sublethal irradiation (375 cGy at 67 cGy/min) and injection of 2×10⁷ human cord blood mononuclear cells. Four to five weeks post transplantation, mobilization is performed by application of either G-CSF or α₁PI. For mobilization of myeloid-committed progenitors, mice receive daily subcutaneous injections of 300 μg/kg G-CSF (Filgrastim, Neupogen® or Neulasta®, Amgen, Inc) in 250 μl of 0.9% NaCl, 5% fetal calf serum for 4-5 days. Alternatively, mice receive twice weekly infusion via the dorsal tail vein of inactive or modified α₁PI (39 mg/kg) at a rate of 0.08 ml/kg/minute. For mobilization of lymphoid-committed progenitors, mice receive twice weekly infusion via the dorsal tail vein of active or modified α₁PI (42 mg/kg) at a rate of 0.08 ml/kg/minute. Mice are asphyxiated with dry ice, peripheral blood is collected by cardiac aspiration into heparinized tubes, and bone marrow is harvested, and cells are flushed from femurs and tibias into single-cell suspensions. Peripheral blood and bone marrow cells are analyzed by flow cytometry for the presence of myeloid and lymphoid markers including CD34 CD38, CD10, CD11b, CD11c, CD13, CD14, CD19, CD3, CD4, CD8, CD45, CD184 (CXCR4), CD66, and HLE_(CS) (U.S. Pat. No. 6,858,400).

6.4 Bind Anti-HIV-1 gp120:

Active or modified α₁PI are incubated in fluid phase with monoclonal antibodies reactive with HIV-1 gp120. The anti-gp120 monoclonal antibodies 3F5 (hybridoma culture supernatant, 0085-P3F5-D5-F8) is reactive with an epitope near the gp120 C5 domain (Moore et al., 1994). Clone α70 (ICN Biochemicals, Aurora, Ohio) is reactive with the V3-loop of gp120, a domain that is identical to the HLE ligand inter-α-trypsin inhibitor (Pratt et al., 1987). Immune complexes are captured by incubating mixtures in wells of a microtiter plate pre-coated with chicken anti-human α₁PI IgG. Binding is detected using horse radish peroxidase-conjugated rabbit anti-mouse IgG followed by substrate, orthophenylene diamine HCl.

6.5 Facilitate HIV-1 Infectivity:

Primary non-syncytium inducing HIV-1 clinical isolates (Advanced Biotechnologies, Rivers Park, Ill.) are used to infect peripheral blood mononuclear cells maintained in wells of a 96 well tissue culture plate at 2×10⁶ cells/ml in RPMI-1640 containing 20% autologous serum and 10% IL-2 (Cellular Products, Buffalo, N.Y.). Prior to addition of HIV-1, cells are incubated with active or modified α₁PI for 0 min or 60 min at 37° C., 5% CO₂. In vitro infectivity outcome is determined in triplicate by p24 accumulation or by RT activity as previously described (Bristow, 2001). Cell counts and viability are determined at the final time point.

7. Treatment Outcome Measurements:

7.1

To determine the effectiveness of treatment on elastase inhibitory capacity, individuals are monitored weekly for active and inactive α₁PI blood levels (Bristow et al., 1998) (U.S. Pat. No. 6,887,678). Briefly, a constant amount of active site-titrated PPE is allowed to incubate with serial dilutions of serum for 2 min at 37° C. after which a PPE substrate is added. Determination of the molecules of substrate cleaved by residual, uninhibited PPE is used to calculate the molecules of active and inactive α₁PI in blood.

7.2

To determine the effectiveness of treatment on inducing changes in levels of targeted blood cell populations, treated individuals are monitored weekly for changes in complete blood count and differential, as well as for changes in specific subsets of blood cells such as CD4⁺ cells and HLE_(CS) ⁺ cells using flow cytometry (Bristow et al 2001; Bristow, 2001) (U.S. Pat. No. 6,858,400). Briefly, 100 μl of whole blood is incubated with a panel of fluorescently-labeled monoclonal antibodies approved by the FDA for medical diagnostics. These antibodies are selected to specifically recognize the cell receptors that uniquely identify the cell population of interest. Identification and enumeration of the cells in blood that are bound to the monoclonal antibodies is performed using flow cytometry.

7.3

To determine the influence of treatment on disease progression, individuals are monitored for the specific pathologic determinants of disease which are well known in the art for the various indications, e.g. in stem cell transplantation, organ transplantation, autoimmunity, diabetes, leukemia, cancer, HIV-1 infection, atherosclerosis, and other diseases influenced by blood cells. For example, in HIV-1 disease, individuals are monitored for changes in CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels and HIV levels (Bristow et al., 2001; Bristow, 2001). In leukemia or cancer, individuals are monitored for changes in the presence of leukemic or cancerous cells (Tavor. S. et al., 2005). In stem cell transplantation, individuals are monitored for changes in normal blood cells (Jansen et al., 2005). In organ transplantation, individuals are monitored for organ rejection (Kirschfink, 2002). In autoimmunity, individuals are monitored for the presence of autoantibodies and specific functions of the affected organs (Marinaki et al., 2005). In diabetes and atherosclerosis, individuals are monitored for changes in total cholesterol, LDL, HDL, and triglyceride levels (Talmud et al., 2003).

Examples

1. Increased CD4⁺ Lymphocytes are Correlated with Increased α₁PI and Decreased HLE_(CS) ⁺ Lymphocytes in Healthy Individuals.

In healthy individuals, circulating α₁PI ranges from 18-53 μM between the 5^(th) and 95^(th) percentiles, and 90-100% of this protein is in its active form as determined by inhibition of porcine pancreatic elastase (Bristow et al., 2001). To investigate the relationship between active α₁PI, HLE_(CS) ⁺, and CD4⁺ lymphocytes, 6 healthy HIV-1 seronegative adults, 3 males and 3 females, were specifically selected to represent a wide spectrum of α₁PI (1.9-61.5 μM). Subjects were measured for CD4, CXCR4, CCR5, HLE_(CS), active and inactive α₁PI levels, and α₂-macroglobulin (α₂M). Independently, neither active α₁PI, HLE_(CS) ⁺ lymphocytes, α₂M, CXCR4⁺ lymphocytes, nor CCR5⁺ lymphocytes were correlated with CD4⁺ lymphocytes. However, by multilinear regression analysis, it was found that higher numbers of CD4+ lymphocytes (% lymphocytes) were correlated (r²=0.937) with two counterbalancing variables together, higher active α₁PI (p=0.008) and lower HLE_(CS) ⁺ lymphocytes (p=0.034) (FIG. 1a ).

To investigate CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels in the general population, blood was collected from an additional 18 healthy, HIV-1 seronegative adults, 9 males and 9 females, who were measured for CD4, CXCR4, CCR5, SDF-1, active and inactive α₁PI levels. HLE_(CS) was measured in 16 of these individuals. Values for active α₁PI (19-37 μM) and SDF-1 levels (191-359 pM) for these volunteers were found to be within normal ranges. Higher CD4⁺ lymphocytes (%) were again found to be correlated (r^(z)=0.803) with higher active α₁PI (p<0.007) and lower HLE_(CS) ⁺ lymphocytes (p<0.001) (FIG. 1b ). Along with active α₁PI and HLE_(CS) ⁺ lymphocytes, lower SDF-1 concentration (p=0.02) also significantly contributed to predicting higher CD4⁺ lymphocytes (r⁷=0.875). Although CXCR4⁺ lymphocytes were not significantly related to CD4⁺ lymphocytes, this may reflect the detection of both active and inactive configurations of CXCR4 on individual cells (Percherancier et al., 2005).

There was no statistical difference between the volunteers in FIGS. 1a and b in their active α₁PI levels (median=23 and 24, respectively) and CD4⁺ lymphocytes (mean=48% and 45%, respectively); however, in volunteers depicted in FIG. 1a the range is wide (1.9-61.5 μM) and standard deviation is large (s=24), whereas in volunteers depicted in FIG. 1b , the range of active α₁PI is narrow (19-37 μM) and the standard deviation is small (s=6), and this suggests CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels are sensitive to small differences in α₁PI levels. The sensitivity of CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels to α₁PI levels is further exemplified during the acute phase of an enteric infection in one volunteer who was otherwise healthy (FIG. 1c ). In this individual, an increase in total lymphocytes (1.15-fold) and CD4⁺ lymphocytes (1.2 fold) was found to occur in concert with an increase in total α₁PI (2.7-fold), increase in active α₁PI (1.5 fold), and decrease in HLE_(CS) (2.9-fold).

2. Monoclonal anti-gp120 binds human, but not chimpanzee α₂PI.

Two monoclonal antibodies (1C1 and 3F5) which bind a conformationally determined epitope near the C5 domain of gp120 (Moore et al., 1994) were found to also bind human α₁PI (Bristow et al., 2001). It was hypothesized that anti-gp120 mediated depletion of active α₁PI might be pathognomonic for HIV-1 AIDS. If true, chimpanzee α₁PI should differ from human α₁PI since HIV-1 infected chimpanzees survive infection and regain normal levels of CD4⁺ lymphocytes (Rutjens et al., 2003). Sequence comparison revealed that human α₁PI differs from chimpanzee α₁PI by one amino acid (aa 385) caused by a single nucleotide change (NCBI accession numbers BT019455 and XP_522938), and this aa difference lies in the gp120-homologous region of α₁PI. To determine whether this sequence difference affects the binding of anti-gp120 to α₁PI, 20 human and 20 chimpanzee sera were compared. Both 1C1 (data not shown) and 3F5 exhibited 8- to 14-fold greater binding to human, than chimpanzee α₁PI in 6 repeat measurements (p<0.001) (FIG. 2a ). Negative control monoclonal antibody α70 which reacts with the V3-loop of gp120 failed to bind human α₁PI (data not shown) consistent with previous findings (Bristow et al., 2001). Serum α₁PI in two human subjects exhibited much greater affinity for 3F5 than that from other subjects, and this suggests the epitope of α₁PI recognized by 3F5 may be phenotypically determined. When these two subjects were omitted from the comparison, the statistical difference between binding of 3F5 to human or chimpanzee α₁PI was maintained (p<0.001).

To examine the relationship between lower CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels and lower active α₁PI levels HIV-1 in disease, blood from 38 HIV-1 infected patients was analyzed. Of these 38 patients, 29% had detectable IgG-α₁PI immune complexes, 89% were on antiretroviral therapy, and 60% had <500 HIV-1 RNA copies/ml (FIG. 2b ). The number of patients exhibiting detectable IgG-α₁PI immune complexes in this study differs from a previous study of 68 HIV-1 patients in which 60% had detectable IgG-α₁PI immune complexes, 53% were on antiretroviral therapy (AZT only), and 16% had <500 HIV-1 RNA copies/ml (Bristow et al., 2001). This reason for this difference may be related to the improved antiretroviral therapy in place today.

None of the sera from healthy chimpanzees, nor sera collected from 2 chimpanzees post-HIV-1 inoculation, had evidence of detectable IgG-α₁PI immune complexes. The HIV-1 inoculated chimpanzees were confirmed to be HIV-1 infected, but had normal CD4⁺ lymphocytes (Girard et al., 1998). In addition, despite the presence of anti-gp120, we found no evidence of IgG-α₁PI immune complexes in 10 rhesus macaques following immunization with simian/human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV 89.6) gp120 or gp140, or in 3 macaques infected with SHIV (data not shown). Extensive in vitro analyses failed to demonstrate bi-molecular complexes between gp120 and α₁PI (data not shown), and the absence of detection of IgG-α₁PI immune complexes in sera from HIV-1 infected chimpanzees suggests gp120 and α₁PI are not associated by aggregation in sera. These results suggest that IgG-α₁PI immune complexes are unique to HIV-1 disease in humans.

Consistent with evidence from a previous patient study, active α₁PI in the HIV-1 infected patients was significantly below normal (median 17 μM, p<0.001) (FIG. 2c ) and inactive α₁PI was significantly above normal (median 19 μM, p<0.001) (FIG. 2d ) (Bristow et al., 2001). In contrast to humans, active α₁PI levels in sera collected from the 2 chimpanzees post-HIV-1 inoculation (39 μM) were not different from normal chimpanzee and human sera (p=0.810) (FIG. 2c ).

To determine whether α₁PI becomes inactivated after complexing with the 3F5 anti-gp120 monoclonal antibody, 3F5 was incubated with sera samples from five healthy individuals. In comparison to untreated sera, α₁PI activity was significantly diminished to the same degree in all sera (mean difference=5.8±0.5 μM, p<0.001) (FIG. 2e ).

The gp120 epitope recognized by 1C1 and 3F5 is considered to be conformation-dependent (Moore et al., 1994). The gp120 peptide immunogen used to raise 1C1 and 3F5 (aa 300-321, GGGDMRDNW˜SEL YKYKVVK (SEQ ID NO: 15) (Ratner et al., 1985) contains both an α-helix (aa 306-313) and linear strand (aa 314-321) (FIG. 3a,b ), but other epitope determinants of the antibodies are not known. In human α₁PI (FIG. 3c,d ), the gp120-homologous sequence (aa 369-389, PFVFLMIDQNTKSPLFMGKVV (SEQ ID NO: 16) folds to form a two-stranded antiparallel β-sheet that lies at the base of a cleft (4A° deep by 20A° long by 5A° wide) topped by two α-helices (aa 28-47 and 259-277) in a smaller, but similar configuration as the antigen-binding cleft of MHC (10A° deep by 25A° long by 10A° wide) (Bjorkman et al., 1987). At the far end of the first of these α-helices is the N-linked mannose-containing oligosaccharide that confers structural polymorphism to α₁PI (aa 46) (Jeppsson et al., 1985). In the center of the β-sheet that lies in the cleft, is M-385 which distinguishes human from chimpanzee α₁PI (V-385), The function of this cleft is not known, but a sequence in the center of the β-sheet formation (aa 370-374, FVFLM (SEQ ID NO: 7) is homologous to the fusion domain of HIV-1 gp41, and this sequence has been implicated in binding HLEcs (Bristow et al., 1995; Bristow et al., 2003) and stimulating cell motility (Joslin et al., 1991).

In α₁PI, the sequence GKVV (aa 386-389. SEQ ID NO: 2) lies within 5A° of M-385, N-46, and the N-linked oligosaccharide in a space occupying 5A° by 5A° by 5A°. In gp120, in the same relative orientation as in α₁PI, the sequence YKVV (aa 315-318, SEQ ID NO: 1) lies within 5A° of M-17 and 8A° of N-92 and the N-linked mannose-containing oligosaccharide (Leonard et al., 1987) in a space occupying 5A° by 5A° by 8A°. Evidence that α₁PI polymorphisms may influence 3F5 binding (FIG. 2a ) suggests the polymorphism-determining N-46 oligosaccharide participates in 3F5 recognition of α₁PI. Thus, the 3F5 conformational epitope is suggested by these analyses to occupy a 5A° by 5A° by 8A° space including KVV, M, N, and the N-linked Oligosaccharide. This proposed conformational epitope is consistent with previously characterized antigen configurations that contain oligosaccharide determinants (Cygler et al., 1991) as well as with results demonstrating that gp120 N-92 is invariant (Wei et al., 2003).

3. Active α₁PI is Rate Limiting for CD4⁺ Lymphocytes in HIV-1 Disease.

Of the 36 patients included in the study population, 23 were below 500 and 13 were above 500 HIV RNA copies/ml at the time of blood collection. All patients were measured for CD4, CXCR4, CCR5, SDF-1 levels, active and inactive α₁PI. Only 28 of these patients were additionally measured for HLE_(CS). Neither CXCR4 nor CCR5 were found to correlate individually or in combination with any parameters of disease being investigated in these patients. Eleven of the 38 HIV-1 patients had active liver disease as defined by detectable Hepatitis B or C, or elevated liver enzymes. HIV-1 patients with liver disease were not different from patients without liver disease in active. α₁PI (p=0.95), total α₁PI (p=0.79), CXCR4 (p=0.63), or CCR5 (p=0.9), but exhibited significantly higher SDF-1 (p<0.001), HLE_(CS) ⁺ lymphocytes (p<0.001), and CD4⁺ lymphocytes (p=0.04).

In the 23 patients with <500 HIV-1 RNA copies/ml, higher CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels were correlated with higher active α₁PI concentration (r²=0.927) and lower inactive α₁PI concentration (r²=0.946) (FIG. 4). Prediction of CD4 levels from active α₁PI levels with 95% confidence had a standard error of 151 cells/μl, and prediction from inactive α₁PI levels with 95% confidence had a standard error of 105 cells/μl. Of these 23 patients, only 16 had been additionally measured for HLE_(CS). As in Healthy individuals (FIG. 1), lower HLE_(CS) ⁺ lymphocytes was itself not correlated with higher CD4⁺ lymphocytes, but in combination with higher active α₁PI was significantly correlated (p=0.01). That CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels could be predicted by active α₁PI alone with such a high degree of accuracy in patients controlling their viral load suggests that, unlike the normal population, active α₁PI is rate limiting for CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels in HIV-1 disease. In patients with >500 HIV RNA copies/ml, there was no relationship between CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels and active or inactive α₁PI (FIG. 4), and this suggests either HIV-1 itself, or other host processes had contributed to disrupting the regulation of CD4⁺ lymphocyte levels.

4. α₁PI Augmentation Therapy in HIV-1 Infected Patients.

The number of CD4⁺ T lymphocytes in patients with <500 HIV-1 RNA copies/ml is controlled by their circulating concentration of α₁PI (Example 2). These patients have below normal levels of circulating α₁PI (Bristow et al., 2001). Approximately 10% clinic patients in New York City who have <500 HIV-1 RNA copies/ml also have <200 CD4 cells/μl, and these patients benefit from α₁PI augmentation by increasing their CD4⁺ T lymphocyte numbers. Treatment of HIV-1 infected patients with α₁PI augmentation is indicated in patients who are simultaneously receiving one or a combination of the four currently known classes, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, HIV-1 aspartyl protease inhibitors, and fusion inhibitors.

Patients with <500 HIV-1 RNA copies/ml and <200 CD4 cells/μl who are receiving antiretroviral therapy are treated using Zemaira® α₁PI. Patients receive weekly infusions of Zemaira® at 60 mg/kg as described in Section 2 of the Detailed Description. Treatment outcome is monitored as described in Section 7.3 of the Detailed Description. Specifically, patients receiving Zemaira® are monitored weekly for changes in active and inactive α₁PI levels as well as for CD4⁺ T lymphocytes and other subsets of circulating blood cells. Patients are also monitored for changes in HIV-1 RNA copies/ml, LDL, HDL, cholesterol, triglycerides, and the occurrence of infections designated by the CDC as parameters of HIV-1 disease progression (Castro et al., 1992). To determine possible adverse effects of immune complex disease, individuals are monitored for the presence of antibodies reactive with α₁PI as well as for the occurrence of glomerulonephritis by measuring either proteinuria or serum creatinine levels (Bristow et al., 2001; Virella et al., 1981).

5. α₁PI Augmentation Therapy in HIV-1 Infected Patients Using Genetically Modified α₁PI.

Antibodies that recognize HIV-1 arc the only diagnostic marker of infectivity. The presence of an anti-gp120 antibody that also binds α₁PI has been detected in most HIV-1 infected individuals (Bristow et al., 2001), and this antibody inactivates and produces deficient levels of α₁PI. Anti-gp120 does not bind chimpanzee α₁PI which differs from human α₁PI by a single amino acid (aa 385) (Example 2). To therapeutically augment α₁PI in HIV-1 infected individuals, it is desirable to use genetically modified α₁PI which substitutes a different aa in place of Met (aa 385). In addition, a hydrophobic domain (aa 370-374) near Met (aa 385) has been shown to facilitate HIV-1 entry (Bristow et al., 2001). Thus, it is also desirable to change one or more of the aa in this hydrophobic domain for treatment in HIV-1 disease.

α₁PI is genetically modified as described in Section 4 of the Detailed Description with three substitutions, aa 385 (Met to Val), aa 372 (Phe to Gly), and aa 373 (Leu to Gly), and is designated α₁PI.β.F372G.L373G.M385V (α₁PI.β). The α₁PI.βP sequence with aa changes represented in bold underlined letters is as follows (SEQ ID NO: 17):

-24 MPSSVSWGIL LLAGLCCLVP VSLA   1 EDPQGDAAQK TDTSHHDQDH PTFNKITPNL AEFAFSLYRQ LAHQSNSTNI  51 FFSPVSIATA FAMLSLGTKA DTHDEILEGL NFNLTEIPEA QIHEGFQELL 101 RTLNQPDSQL QLTTGNGLFL SEGLKLVDKF LEDVKKLYHS EAFTVNFGDT 151 EEAKKQINDY VEKGTQGKIV DLVKELDRDT VFALVNYIFF KGKWERPFEV 201 KDTEEEDFHV DQVTTVKVPM MKRLGMFNIQ HCKKLSSWVL LMKYLGNATA 251 IFFLPDEGKL QHLENELTHD IITKFLENED RRSASLHLPK LSITGTYDLK 301 SVLGQLGITK VFSNGADLSG VTEEAPLKLS KAVHKAVLTI DEKGTEAAGA 351 MFLEAIPMSI PPEVKFNKPF VGGMIEQNTK SPLfYGKVVN PTQK

The functional capacity of α₁PI.β depicted in Table 2 is determined as described in Section 6 of the Detailed Description.

TABLE 2 Functions of the C-terminal region of α₁PI.β Proteinase Lymphoid cell Myeloid cell anti-gp120 HIV-1 entry Inhibition migration migration binding co-factor Native configuration in the active α₁PI.β + − − − + Rearranged configuration in cleaved α₁PI.β − − − − − Complexed with HLE in cleaved α₁PI.β − − − − − Independent of other α₁PI.β cleavage products − − − − Unknown

The recommended dose of α₁PI is 60 mg/kg. The specific activity of Zemaira® is 70%, where specific activity is defined as inhibition of PPE (Bristow et al., 1998). Thus, the recommended dose of Zemaira® α₁PI may be stated as 42 mg/kg active α₁PI. In accordance with the recommended Zemaira® treatment regimen, HIV-1 patients with <500 HIV-1 RNA copies/ml and <200 CD4 cells/μl who are receiving antiretroviral therapy are infused with the concentration of α₁PI.β that is in the range of 1 to 420 mg/kg active α₁PI with a target blood threshold of 35 μM α₁PI.β. Treatment of HIV-1 infected patients with α₁PI.β is indicated in patients who are simultaneously receiving one or a combination of the four currently known classes, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, HIV-1 aspartyl protease inhibitors, and fusion inhibitors. Treatment outcome is monitored as described in Section 7.3 of the Detailed Description. Specifically, patients receiving α₁PI.β are monitored weekly for changes in active and inactive α₁PI levels as well as for CD4⁺ T lymphocytes and other subsets of circulating blood cells. Patients are also monitored for changes in HIV-1 RNA copies/ml, LDL, HDL, cholesterol, triglycerides, and the occurrence of infections designated by the CDC as parameters of HIV-1 disease progression (Castro et al., 1992). To determine possible adverse effects of immune complex disease, individuals are monitored for the presence of antibodies reactive with α₁PI as well as for the occurrence of glomerulonephritis by measuring either proteinuria or serum creatinine levels (Bristow et al., 2001; Virella et al., 1981).

6. α₁PI Inhibits SDF-1 Induced Migration of Human Leukemic Cells in, but Enhances Migration of Human Stem Cells.

Human acute myeloid leukemia cells (AML) not only secrete HLE_(G), but also express HLE_(CS) constitutively on the cell surface in a manner that is regulated by the CXCR4/SDF-1 axis (Tavor. S. et al., 2005). Preincubation of AML cells with α₁PI significantly reduced their SDF-1 dependent migration in all AML cells tested using an in vitro transwell assay (Tavor. S. et al., 2005). Further, in a mouse model it was found that α₁PI inhibited homing of transplanted human stem cells to bone marrow and egress of transplanted AML cells from bone marrow. The influence of α₁PI was shown to occur by its action on HLE_(CS). When AML cells were treated with α₁PI, SDF-1 induced pseudopodia formation was prevented. These results are in contrast to previous studies using a U937 promonocytic cell line which demonstrated that α₁PI—induced pseudopodia formation was prevented by pretreatment with SDF-1 (Bristow et al., 2003), and this difference emphasizes the importance of α₁PI and SDF-1 in promoting cell migration of various cells dependent on their stage of differentiation. Augmentation with active and modified α₁PI is used therapeutically to control the proliferation and spread of leukemia and lymphoma cells. Active α₁PI is used to prevent proliferation and spread of leukemia and lymphoma cells triggered by SDF-1. Inactive α₁PI is used to prevent proliferation and spread of leukemia and lymphoma cells triggered by active α₁PI. Patients receive therapeutic augmentation with active or modified α₁PI with a target blood threshold of 35 μM active α₁PI and are monitored for active and inactive α₁PI levels as well as for changes in the number of AML cells in circulation using flow cytometry.

7. α₁PI Augmentation Therapy in Patients with a Microbial Infection.

High levels of neutrophils and HLE_(G) are present in the respiratory secretions of patients with cystic fibrosis. The primary cause of this inflammatory situation is chronic infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other bacteria. Abundant α₁PI is present in these patients, but is predominantly inactivated by HLE_(G) and P. aeruginosa elastase (Barbey-Morel and Perlmutter, 1991). Prolastin® has demonstrated improvement by reducing elastase activity, neutrophil counts, and bacterial colonies in a rat model (Cantin and Woods, 1999). Inactivated α₁PI is a chemoattractant for neutrophils (Joslin et al., 1992). In addition to the therapeutic benefit of inhibiting the elevated elastase activity that attends the inflammatory sequelae of microbial infection, augmentation with active α₁PI diminishes the inactivated α₁PI-induced neutrophil infiltrate. Patients receive active α₁PI with a target blood threshold of 35 μM active α₁PI and are monitored for active and inactive α₁PI levels as well as for changes in the number of neutrophils in circulation using flow cytometry and changes in infection driven inflammation.

8. α₁PI Augmentation Therapy for Neutropenia.

In the majority of patients with severe congenital neutropenia, mutations are found in the gene encoding HLE or in the gene encoding the receptor for G-CSF (Horwitz et al., 1999; Benson et al., 2003). HLE mutations that prevent localization to the plasma membrane cause cyclic neutropenia, and mutations that cause exclusive localization to the plasma membrane cause the pre-leukemic disorder, severe congenital neutropenia (Benson et al., 2003). Because inactive α₁PI mobilizes neutrophils (Joslin et al., 1992), augmentation with inactive α₁PI is used therapeutically for the purpose of increasing the number of neutrophils in circulation. Patients receive inactive α₁PI with a target of 39 mg/kg inactive α₁PI and are monitored for active and inactive α₁PI levels as well as for changes in the number of neutrophils in circulation using flow cytometry.

9. α₁PI Augmentation Therapy for Solid Tumors.

Tumor cell lines and biopsy specimens exhibit inverse correlations of α₁PI and the metalloproteinase MMP-26-(Li et al., 2004). Expression of MMP-26 in estrogen-dependent neoplasms is likely to contribute to the inactivation of α₁PI promoting matrix destruction and malignant progression. Furthermore, evidence suggests α₁PI participates in tumor cell migration (Nejjari et al., 2004).

A serious side effect of myelosuppressive chemotherapy for solid tumors, is neutropenia. G-CSF (Filgrastim, Neupogen® or Neulasta®, Amgen, Inc.) is currently used to mobilize neutrophils in patients on myelosuppressive chemotherapy. In combination with G-CSF, using active α₁PI therapeutically to mobilize lymphoid-lineage cells in patients receiving myelosuppressive chemotherapy offers the additional benefit of controlling tumor metastasis. Patients receive active α₁PI with a target blood threshold of 35 μM active α₁PI and are monitored for active and inactive α₁PI levels as well as for changes in the number of myeloid-lineage, lymphoid-lineage, and tumor cells in circulation using flow cytometry.

10. α₁PI Augmentation Therapy in Atherosclerosis.

Diminished active α₁PI promotes atherogenesis (Talmud et al., 2003). Oxidized α₁PI has no proteinase inhibitory activity, and instead associates with LDL in vivo (Mashiba et al., 2001). The C-terminal fragment of α₁PI is present in atherosclerotic plaques (Dichtl et al., 2000). The oxidized and proteolyzed inactivation of α₁PI is thought to result from subclinical infections of the arterial intima by bacteria such as Porphyromonas gingivalis (Brodala et al., 2005; Beck et al., 2005). Augmentation with active α₁PI is used therapeutically to mobilize lymphoid-lineage cells into the infected tissue for the purpose of controlling and clearing the infection. Patients receive augmentation with active α₁PI with a target blood threshold of 35 μM active α₁PI and are monitored for active and inactive α₁PI levels as well as for intimal wall thickness and atherosclerotic plaque formation.

11. α₁PI Augmentation Therapy in Insulin-Dependent Diabetes.

Increased inactive α₁PI is present in insulin-dependent diabetes due to the presence of subclinical infections (Bristow et al., 1998; Sandler et al., 1988) and hyperglycemia (Sandler et al., 1988). Recombinant adeno-associated virus-mediated α₁PI gene therapy in a murine model reduced the level of insulin autoantibodies and the frequency of overt diabetes (Song et. al., 2004). Augmentation with active α₁PI is used therapeutically to mobilize lymphoid-lineage cells into the infected tissue for the purpose of controlling and clearing the infection as well as to ameliorate the incidence of autoantibodies in diabetes. Patients receive augmentation with active α₁PI with a target blood threshold of 35 μM active α₁PI and are monitored for active and inactive α₁PI levels as well as for the presence of anti-insulin antibodies.

12. α₁PI Augmentation Therapy in Autoimmune Diseases.

A Predisposing Condition for the occurrence of autoimmune disease is the inborn deficiency of a proteinase or proteinase inhibitor involved in homeostasis. Wegener's granulomatosis is caused by autoimmunity to the α₁PI ligand, proteinase 3 (Pendergraft et al., 2003; Csernok et al., 1990). Active α₁PI ameliorates the autoimmune pathogenesis of Wegener's granulomatosis (Rooney et al., 2001). Systemic lupus erythematosis can arise in patients with complement deficiencies or α₁PI deficiency (Sinico et al., 2005) Elevated HLE_(G) activity is detected in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (Adeyemi et al., 1986). These patients benefit from augmentation with active α₁PI. Patients receive augmentation with active α₁PI with a target blood threshold of 35 μM active α₁PI and are monitored for active and inactive α₁PI levels as well as for autoimmune-mediated inflammation.

13. α₁PI Augmentation Therapy in Solid Organ Transplantation.

Excessive activation of proteinase cascade systems has been associated with post-transplantation inflammatory disorders and organ rejection (Kirschfink, 2002). Augmentation with active α₁PI diminishes post-transplantation inflammation; however, this therapy also mobilizes both lymphoid-lineage and myeloid-lineage cells potentially facilitating organ rejection. To overcome this adverse affect, α₁PI is genetically modified to prevent interaction with receptors and to prevent stimulation of cell motility (see Example 5). Augmentation with genetically modified α₁PI is used therapeutically to diminish inflammation and prevent recruitment of inflammatory blood cells and their products into transplants. Patients receive genetically modified α₁PI with a target blood threshold of 35 μM genetically modified α₁PI and are monitored for active and inactive α₁PI levels as well as for markers of organ rejection.

14. α₁PI Augmentation Therapy in Stem Cell Transplantation.

Migration of stem cells to, and progenitor cells from bone marrow is controlled by HLE_(CS), SDF-1, CXCR4 (Tavor. S. et al., 2005; Lapidot and Petit, 2002) and α₁PI (Examples 1-3 herein). Active α₁PI mobilizes lymphoid-lineage cells and inactive α₁PI mobilizes myeloid-lineage cells. Active and modified α₁PI are used therapeutically to mobilize stem cells to hematopoietic tissue and progenitor cells from hematopoietic tissue doling stem cell transplantation.

Patients undergoing stem cell transplantation are treated with G-CSF (Filgrastim, Neupogen® or Neulasta®, Amgen, Inc.) to mobilize progenitor cells into circulation, and these are primarily myeloid-committed progenitor cells (Cottler-Fox et al., 2003). Progenitor cells are harvested from blood and placed in culture in vitro for the purpose of proliferation before transplantation. Proliferation and differentiation is monitored using flow cytometry. Active α₁PI is given therapeutically with a target blood threshold of 200 μM active α₁PI to mobilize lymphoid-lineage cells into circulation. Mobilized lymphoid-committed progenitor cells are harvested from blood and placed in culture in Vitro for the purpose of proliferation before transplantation. Patients receiving mobilization treatment with active α₁PI are monitored for active and inactive α₁PI levels. Harvested lymphoid-committed progenitor cells are monitored for proliferation and differentiation using flow cytometry prior to reinjection.

15. α₁PI in Producing Dendritic Cell-Based Vaccines.

Autologous stem cell transplantation involves a process of harvesting stem cells from circulation, culturing the cells in vitro to proliferate, and reinjection into the patient. This same principle is used to produce autologous dendritic cell-based vaccines. Dendritic cells are used as a vector to deliver selected immunogens to the lymph nodes where their interaction with T lymphocytes initiates an immune response to the selected immunogen. Dendritic cell-based vaccines are currently being used to induce immunity to tumor antigens (Schuler et al., 2003). Monocytic or lymphocytic cells are harvested from the blood of a patient with cancer, for example, malignant melanoma. Harvested cells are cultured in vitro in the presence of a cocktail of cytokines including G-CSF and GM-CSF that induces their differentiation into either monocyte-derived dendritic cells or plasmacytoid dendritic cells depending on the combination of cytokines used (Messmer et al., 2002). Dendritic cells are loaded with an antigen, for example melanoma peptide, and reinjected into the patient (Palucka et al., 2005; Schuler et al., 2003). Patients are monitored for the presence of melanoma-specific lymphocytes.

Active α₁PI is used to stimulate in vitro differentiation of lymphoid-lineage and myeloid-lineage blood cells into dendritic cells. Differentiation and function of dendritic cells is monitored using flow cytometry and cytokine secretion as described previously (Messmer et al., 2002). Dendritic cells are pulsed with antigen and reinjected into the patient. Patients receiving α₁PI-induced dendritic cells are monitored for the presence of immunogen-specific lymphocytes.

REFERENCE LIST

-   Adeyemi, E. O., Hull, R. G., Chadwick, V. S., Hughes, G. R., and     Hodgson, H. J. (1986). Circulating human leucocyte elastase in     rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatol. Int. 6, 57-60: -   Ali, H., Tomhave, E. D., Richardson, R. M., Haribabu, B., and     Snyderman, R. (1996). Thrombin primes responsiveness of selective     chemoattractant receptors at a site distal to G protein     activation. J. Biol. Chem. 271, 3200-3206. -   Banda, M. J., Rice, A. G., Griffin, G. L., and Senior, R. M. (1988).     α1-proteinase inhibitor is a neutrophil chemoattractant after     proteolytic inactivation by macrophage elastase. J. Biol. Chem. 263,     4481-4484. -   Barbey-Morel, C. and Perlmutter, D. H. (1991). Effect of Pseudomonas     elastase on human mononuclear phagocyte α₁-antitrypsin expression.     Pediatr Res 29, 133-139. -   Beck, J. D., Eke, P., Lin, D., Madianos, P., Couper, D., Moss, K.,     Elter, J., Heiss, G., and Offenbadher, S. (2005). Associations     between IgG antibody to oral organisms and carotid intima-medial     thickness in community-dwelling adults. Atherosclerosis 183,     342-348. -   Benson, K. F., Li, F. Q., Person, R. E., Albani, D., Duan, Z.,     Wechsler, J., Meade-White, K., Williams, K., Acland, G. M.,     Niemeyer, G., Lothrop, C. D., and Horwitz, M. (2003). Mutations     associated with neutropenia in dogs and humans disrupt intracellular     transport of neutrophil elastase. Nat Genet 35, 90-96. -   Berninger, R. W. (1985). Alpha 1-antitrypsin. J. Med. 16, 23-99. -   Bjorkman, P. J., Saper, M. A., Samraoui, B., Bennett, W. S.,     Strominger, J. L., and Wiley, D. C. (1987). Structure of the human     class I histocompatibility antigen, HLA-A2. Nature 329, 506-512. -   Brantly, M. L., Wittes, J. T., Vogelmeier, C. F., Hubbard, R. C.,     Fells, G. A., and Crystal, R. G. (1991). Use of a highly purified     alpha 1-antitrypsin standard to establish ranges for the common     normal and deficient alpha 1-antitrypsin phenotypes. Chest 100,     703-708. -   Bristow, C. L. (2001). Slow human immunodeficiency virus-(HIV)     infectivity correlated with low HIV coreceptor levels. Clin. Diagn.     Lab. Immunol. 8, 932-936. -   Bristow, C. L., di Meo, F., and Arnold, R. R, (1.998). Specific     activity of α1 proteinase inhibitor and α2 macroglobulin in human     serum: Application to insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Clin.     Immunol. Immunopathol. 89, 247-259. -   Bristow, C. L., Fiscus, S. A., Flood, P. M., and Arnold, R. R.     (1995). Inhibition of HIV-1 by modification of a host membrane     protease. Int. Immunol. 7, 239-249. -   Bristow, C. L., Mercatante, D. R., and Kole, R. (2003). HIV-1     preferentially binds receptors co-patched with cell surface     elastase. Blood 102, 4479-4486. -   Bristow, C. L., Patel, H., and Arnold, R. R. (2001). Self antigen     prognostic for human immunodeficiency virus disease progression.     Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 8, 937-942. -   Brodala, N., Merricks, E. P., Bellinger, D. A., Damrongsri, D.,     Offenbacher, S., Beck, J., Madianos, P., Sotres, D., Chang, Y. L.,     Koch, G and Nichols, T. C. (2005). Porphyromonas gingivalis     Bacteremia Induces Coronary and Aortic Atherosclerosis in     Normocholesterolemic and Hypercholesterolemic Pigs. Arterioscler     Thromb Vasc Biol 25, 1446-1451. -   Cantin, A. M. and Woods, D. E. (1999). Aerosolized Prolastin     Suppresses Bacterial Proliferation in a Model of Chronic Pseudomonas     aeruginosa Lung Infection. American Journal. of Respiratory and     Critical Care Medicine 160, 1130-1135. -   Castro, K. G., Ward, J. W., Slutsker, L., Buehler, J. W., Jaffe,     Jr. J. W., Berkelman, R. L., and Curran, J. W. (1992). 1993 revised     classification system for HIV infection and expanded surveillance     case definition for AIDS among adolescents and adults. Morbid.     Mortal. Weekly Rep. 91, 1-19. -   Cepinskas, G., Sandig, M., and Kvietys, P. R. (1999). PAF-induced     elastase-dependent neutrophil transendothelial migration is     associated with the mobilization of elastase to the neutrophil     surface and localization to the migrating front. J. Cell Science     1.12, 1937-1945. -   Chowanadisai, W., Huang, J., Huang, N., and Lonnerdal, B. (2003).     Stability of recombinant human alpha-1-antitrypsin produced in rice     in infant formula. J Nutr Biochem 14, 386-393. -   Cottler-Fox, M. H., Lapidot, T., Petit, I., Kollet, O., DiPersio, J.     F., Link, D., and Devine, S. (2003). Stem Cell Mobilization.     Hematology 2003, 419-437. -   Courtney, M., Buchwalder, A., Tessier, L.-H. J. M., Benavente, A.,     Balland, A., Kohli, V., Lathe, R., Tolstoshev, P., and Lecocq, J. P.     (1984). High-level production of biologically active human     α1-antitrypsin in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81,     669-673. -   Csernok, E., Ludemann, J., Gross, W. L., and Bainton, D. F. (1990).     Ultrastructural localization of proteinase 3, the target antigen of     anti-cytoplasmic antibodies circulating in Wegener's granulomatosis.     Am. J. Pathol. 137, 1113-1120. -   Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (2002). Greene Publishing     Associates and Wiley-Intersciences, New York). -   Cygler, M., Rose, D. R., and Bundle, D. R. (1991). Recognition of a     cell-surface oligosaccharide of pathogenic Salmonella by an antibody     Fab fragment. Science 253, 442-445. -   Desrochers, P. E., Mookhtiar, K., Van Wart, H. E., Hasty, K. A., and     Weiss, S. J. (1992). Proteolytic inactivation of alpha 1-proteinase     inhibitor and alpha 1-antichyntotrypsin by oxidatively activated     human neutrophil metalloproteinases. Journal of Biological Chemistry     267, 5005-5012. -   Dichtl, W., Moraga, F., Ares, M. P. S., Crisby, M., Nilsson, J.,     Lindgren, S., and Janciauskiene, S. (2000). The carboxyl-Terminal     Fragment of [alpha]1-Antitrypsin Is Present in Atherosclerotic     Plaques and Regulates Inflammatory Transcription Factors in Primary     Human Monocytes. Molecular Cell Biology Research Communications 4,     50-61. -   Elliott, P. R., Pei, X. Y., Dafforn, T. R., and Lomas, D. A. (2000).     Topography of a 2.0 A structure of alpha1-antitrypsin reveals     targets for rational drug design to prevent conformational disease     [In Process Citation]. Protein Sci 9, 1274-1281. -   Flotte, T. R., Brantly, M. L., Spencer, L. T., Byrne, B. J.,     Spencer, C. T., Baker, D. J., and Humphries, M. (2004). Phase I     trial of intramuscular injection of a recombinant adeno-associated     virus alpha 1-antitrypsin (rAAV2-CB-hAAT) gene vector to     AAT-deficient adults. Hum Gene Ther 15, 93-128. -   Garwicz, D., Lennartsson, A., Jacobsen, S. E. W., Gullberg, U., and     Lindmark, A. (2005). Biosynthetic profiles of neutrophil serine     proteases in a human bone marrow-derived cellular myeloid     differentiation model. Haematologica 90, 38-44. -   Girard, M., Mahoney, J., Wei, Q., van der Ryst, E., Muchmore, E.,     Barre-Sinoussi, F., and Fultz, P. N. (1998). Genital infection of     female chimpanzees with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. AIDS     Res Hum Retroviruses 14, 1357-1367. -   Graziadei, I., Gaggl, S., Kaserbacher, R., Braunsteiner, H., and     Vogel, W. (1994). The acute-phase protein alpha 1-antitrypsin     inhibits growth and proliferation of human early erythroid     progenitor cells (burst-forming units-erythroid) and of human     erythroleukemic cells (K562) in vitro by interfering with     transferrin iron uptake. Blood 83, 260-268. -   Gullberg, U., Lindmark, A., Lindgren, G., Persson, A.-M., Nilsson,     E., and Olsson, I. (1995). Carboxyl-terminal prodomain-deleted human     leukocyte elastase and cathepsin G are efficiently targeted to     granules and enzymatically activated in the rat basophilic/mast cell     line RBL. J. Biol. Chem. 270, 12912-12918. -   Hooper, N. M, (2002). Proteases: a primer, Essays Biochem. 38, 1-8. -   Horwitz, M., Benson, K. F., Duan, Z., Li, F. Q., and Person, R. E.     (2004). Hereditary neutropenia: dogs explain human neutrophil     elastase mutations. Trends Mol, Med. 10, 163-170. -   Horwitz, M., Benson, K. F., Person, R. E., Aprikyan, A. G., and     Dale, D. C. (1999). Mutations in ELA2, encoding neutrophil elastase,     define a 21-day clock in cyclic haematopoiesis. Nat. Genet. 23,     433436. -   Janciauskiene, S. and Lindgren, S. (1999). Effects of fibrillar     C-terminal fragment of cleaved alpha1-antitrypsin on cholesterol     homeostasis in HepG2 cells. Hepatology 29, 434-442. -   Janciauskiene, S., Wright, H. T., and Lindgren, S. (1999).     Atherogenic properties of human monocytes induced by the carboxyl     terminal proteolytic fragment of alpha-1-antitrypsin.     Atherosclerosis 147, 263-275. -   Jansen, J., Hanks, S., Thompson, J. M., Dugan, M. J., and     Akar, L. P. (2005). Transplantation of hematopoietic stem cells from     the peripheral blood, J Cell Mol Med. 9, 37-50. -   Jean, F., Stella, K., Thomas, L., Lui, G., Xiang, Y., and     Reason, A. J. (1998). α1-antitrypsin Portland, a bioengineered     serpin highly selective for furin: Application as an antipathogenic     agent. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95, 7293-7298. -   Jeppsson, J. O., Lilja, H., and Johansson, M. (1985). Isolation and     characterization of two minor fractions of alpha 1-antitrypsin by     high-performance liquid chromatographic chromatofocusing. J.     Chromatogr, 327, 173-177. -   Joslin, G., Fallon, R. J., Bullock, J., Adams, S. P., and     Perlmutter, D. H. (1991). The SEC receptor recognizes a pentapeptide     neodomain of alpha-1-antitrypsin-protease. J. Biol. Chem. 266,     11282-11288. -   Joslin, G., August, A. M., Adams, S., Fallon, R. J., Senior, R. M.,     and Perlmutter, D. H. (1992). The serpin-enzyme complex (SEC)     receptor mediates the neutrophil chemotactic effect of α-₁     antitrypsin-elastase complexes and amyloid-β peptide. J. Clin.     Invest. 90, 1150-1154. -   Kindzelskii, A. L. and Petty, H. R. (2003). Intracellular Calcium     Waves Accompany Neutrophil Polarization,     Fortnylmethionylleucylphenylalanine Stimulation, and Phagocytosis: A     High Speed Microscopy Study. J. Immunol. 170, 64-72. -   Kirschfink, M. (2002). C1-inhibitor and transplantation.     Immunolobiology 205, 534-541. -   Kounnas, M. Z., Church, F. C., Argraves, W. S., and     Strickland, D. K. (1996). Cellular internalization and degradation     of antithrombin III-thrombin, heparin cofactor II-thrombin, and     alpha 1-antitrypsin-trypsin complexes is mediated by the low density     lipoprotein receptor-related protein. J. Biol. Chem. 27.1,     6523-6529. -   Kushner, I. (1982). The phenomenon of the acute phase response.     Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 389, 39-47. -   Lapidot, T. and Petit, I. (2002). Current understanding of stem cell     mobilization: The roles of chemokines, proteolytic enzymes, adhesion     molecules, cytokines, and stromal cells. Exp. Hematol, 30, 973-981. -   Leonard, C. K., Spellman, M. W., Riddle, L., Harris, R. J.,     Thomas, J. N., and Gregory, T. J. (1987). Assignment of intrachain     disulfide bonds and characterization of potential glycosylation. J.     Biol. Chem. 265, 10373-10382. -   Li, W., Savinov, A. Y., Rozanov, D. V., Golubkov, V. S., Hedayat,     H., Postnova, T. I., Golubkova, N. V., Linli, Y., Krajewski, S., and     Strongin, A. Y. (2004). Matrix Metalloproteinase-26 Is Associated     with Estrogen-Dependent Malignancies and Targets {alpha}     1-Antitrypsin Serpin. Cancer Res 64, 8657-8665. -   Luisetti, M. and Travis, J. (1996). Bioengineering: alpha     1-antiproteinase inhibitor site-specific mutagenesis. The prospect     for improving the inhibitor. Chest 110, 278-283. -   Marinaki, S., Neumann, I., Kalsch, A, I., Grimminger, P., Breedijk,     A., Birck, R., Schmitt, W., Waldherr, R., Yard, B. A., and van der     Woude, F. J. (2005). Abnormalities of CD4+ T cell subpopulations in     ANCA-associated vasculitis. Clinical and Experimental Immunology     140, 181-191. -   Mashiba, S., Wada, Y., Takeya, M., Sugiyama, A., Hamakubo, T.,     Nakamnra, A., Noguchi, N., Niki, E., Izumi, A., Kobayashi, M.,     Uchida, K., and Kodama, T. (2001). In Vivo Complex Formation of     Oxidized {alpha}1-Antitrypsin and LDL. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol     21, 1801-1808. -   Mast, A. E., Enghild, J. J., Nagase, H., Suzuki, K., Pizzo, S. V.,     and Salvesen, G. (1991). Kinetics and physiologic relevance of the     inactivation of alpha 1-proteinase inhibitor, alpha     1-antichymotrypsin, and antithrombin III by matrix     metalloproteinases-1 (tissue collagenase), -2 (72-kDa     gelatinase/type IV collagenase), and -3 (stromelysin). Journal of     Biological Chemistry 266, 15810-15816. -   Mellet, P., Boudier, C., Mely, Y., and Bieth, J. D. (1998). Stopped     Flow Fluorescence Energy Transfer Measurement of the Rate Constants     Describing the Reversible Formation and the Irreversible     Rearrangement of the Elastase-alpha 1-Proteinase Inhibitor Complex.     Journal of Biological Chemistry 273, 9119-9123. -   Messmer, D., Jacque, J.-M., Santisteban, C., Bristow, C. L., Han,     S.-Y., Villamide-Herrera, L., Mehlhop, E. R., Marx, P. A.,     Steinman, R. M., Gettie, A., and Pope, M. (2002). Endogenously     expressed nef uncouples cytokine and chemokine production from     membrane phenotypic maturation in dendritic cells. J. Immunol. 169,     4172-4182. -   Methods in Enzymology. Proteolytic Enzymes. Perlmann, G. E. and     Lorand, L. [19]. 1970. Acaemic Press. Colowick, S. P. and Kaplan, N.     O. -   Ref Type: Serial (Book, Monograph) -   Moore, J. P., Sattentau, Q. E., Wyatt, R., and Sodroski, J. (1994).     Probing the structure of the human immunodeficiency virus surface     glycoprotein gp120 with a panel of monoclonal antibodies, J. Virol.     68, 469-484. -   Nejjari, M., Berthet, V., Rigot, V., Laforest, S., Jacquier, M. F.,     Seidah, N. G., Remy, L., Bruyneel, E., Scoazec, J. Y., Marvaldi, J.,     and Luis, J. (2004). Inhibition of Proprotein Convertases Enhances     Cell Migration and Metastases Development of Human Colon Carcinoma     Cells in a Rat Model. Am J Pathol 164, 1925-1933. -   Nukiwa, T., Satoh, K., Brantly, M. L., Ogushi, F., Fells, G. A.,     Courtney, M., and Crystal, R. G. (1986). Identification of a second     mutation in the protein-coding sequence of the Z type alpha     1-antitrypsin gene. J. Biol. Chem. 261, 15989-15994. -   OMIM. Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, OMIM™. McKusick-Nathans     Institute for Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University (Baltimore,     Md.) and National Center for Biotechnology Information, National     Library of Medicine (Bethesda, Md.). 2000. -   Ref Type: Data File -   Palucka, A. K., Dhodapkar, M. V., Paczesny, S., Ueno, H., Fay, J.,     and Banchereau, J. (2005). Boosting vaccinations with peptide-pulsed     CD34+ progenitor-derived dendritic cells can expand long-lived     melanoma peptide-specific CD8+ T cells in patients with metastatic     melanoma. J Immunother. 28, 158-168. -   Parfrey, H., Mahadeva, R., Ravenhill, N. A., Zhou, A., Dafforn, T.     R., Foreman, R. C., and Lomas, D. A. (2003). Targeting a surface     cavity of α_(1-antitrypsin to prevent conformational disease). J.     Biol. Chem. 278, 33060-33066. -   Pei, D., Majmudar, G., and Weiss, S. J. (1994). Hydrolytic     inactivation of a breast carcinoma cell-derived serpin by human     stromelysin-3. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 25849-25855. -   Pendergraft, W. F., Preston, G. A., Shah, R. R., Tropsha, A.,     Carter, C. W., Jennette, J. C., and Falk, R. J. (2003). Autoimmunity     is triggered by cPR-3(105-201), a protein complementary to human     autoantigen proteinase-3. Nat Med. 10 Epub 2003 Dec. 7, 72-79. -   Percherancier, Y., Berchiche, Y., Slight, I., Volkmer-Engert, R.,     Tamamura, H., Fujii, N., Bouvier, M., and Heveker, N. (2005).     Bioluminescence resonance energy transfer reveals ligand-induced     conformational changes in CXCR4 homo- and heterodimers. Journal of     Biological Chemistry M411151200. -   Perkins, S. J., Smith, K. F., Nealis, A. S., Haris, P. I., Chapman,     D., Bauer, C. J., and Harrison, R. A. (1.992). Secondary structure     changes stabilize the reactive-centre cleaved form of SERPINs. J.     Mol. Biol. 228, 1235-4254. -   Person, R. E., Li, F.-Q., Duan, Z., Benson, K. F., Wechsler, J.,     Papadaki, H. A., Eliopoulos, G., Kaufman, C., Bertolone, S. J.,     Nakamoto, B., Papayannopoulou, T., Gri{acute over (m)}es, H, L., and     Horwitz, M. (2003). Mutations in proto-oncogene GF11 cause human     neutropenia and target ELA2. Nature Genetics 34, 308-312. -   Petit, I., Szyper-Kravitz, M., Nagler, A., Lahav, M., Peled, A.,     Habler, L., Ponomaryov, T., Taichman, R. S., Arenzana-Seisdedos, F.,     Fujii, N., Sandbank, J., Zipori, D., and Lapidot, T. (2002). G-CSF     induces stem cell mobilization by decreasing bone marrow SDF-1 and     up-regulating CXCR4. Nature Immunol 3, 687-694. -   Poller, W., Willnow, T. E., Hilpert, J., and Herz, J. (1995).     Differential recognition of alpha 1-antitrypsin-elastase and alpha     1-antichymotiypsin-cathepsin-G complexes by the low density     lipoprotein receptor-related protein. J. Biol. Chem. 270, 2841-2845. -   Pratt, C. W., Roche, P. A., and Pizzo, S. V. (1987), The role of     inter-a-trypsin inhibitor and other proteinase inhibitors in the     plasma clearance of neutrophil elastase and plasmin, Arch. Biochem.     Biophys. 258, 591-599. -   Ratner, L., Haseltine, W., Patarca, R., Livak, K. J., Starcich, B.,     Joseph, S. F., Doran, E. R., Rafalski, J. A., Whitehorn, E. A.,     Baumeister, K., and et al. (1985). Complete nucleotide sequence of     the AIDS virus, HTLV-III. Nature 313, 277-284. -   Rooney, C. P., Taggart, C., Coakley, R., McElvaney, N. G., and     O'Neill, S. J. (2001). Anti-Proteinase 3 Antibody Activation of     Neutrophils Can Be Inhibited by alpha 1-Antitrypsin. American     Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology 24, 747-754. -   Rutjens, E. B.-J. S., Verschoor, E., Bogers, W., Koopman, G., and     Heeney, J. (2003). Lentivirus infections and mechanisms of disease     resistance in chimpanzees. Front. Biosci. 8, d1134-1145. -   Sandler, M., Gemperli, B. M., Hanekom, C., and Kuhn, S. H. (1988).     Serum α₁-protease inhibitor in diabetes mellitus: reduced     concentration and impaired activity. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 5,     249-255. -   Sandoval, C., Stojanova, A., DiFalco, M. R., and Congote, L. F.     (2003). The fusion of IGF I with stromal cell-derived factor I or     [alpha]1 proteinase inhibitor alters their mitogenic or chemotactic     activities while keeping their ability to inhibit HIV-1-gp120     binding. Biochemical Pharmacology 65, 2055-2063. -   Schuler, G., Schuler-Thurner, B., and Steinman, R. M. (2003). The     use of dendritic cells in cancer immunotherapy. Current Opinion in     Immunology 15, 138-147. -   Sifers, R. N., Brashears-Macatee, S., Kidd, V. J., Muensch, H., and     Woo, S. L. (1988). A frameshift mutation results in a truncated     alpha 1-antitrypsin that is retained within the rough endoplasmic     reticulum. Journal of Biological Chemistry 263, 7330-7335. -   Sinico, R. A., Radice, A. N. T. O., kehata, M. A. S. A.,     iammerresi, G. A. I. A., orace, C. A. T. E., rrigo, G. I. R. O.,     ollini, B. R. U. N., i Vecchi, M. A. U. R., and Iacomini, J. (2005),     Anti-C1q Autoantibodies in Lupus Nephritis: Prevalence and Clinical     Significance. Ann NY Acad Sci 1050, 193-200. -   Song, G., Goudy, K., Campbell-Thompson, M., Wasserfall, C.,     Scott-Jorgensen, M., Wang, J., Tang, Q., Crawford, J. M., Ellis, T.     M., Atkinson, M. A., and Flotte, T. R. (2004). Recombinant     adeno-associated virus-mediated alpha-1 antitrypsin gene therapy     prevents type I diabetes in NOD mice. Gene Ther 11, 181-186. -   Talmud, P. J., Martin, S., Steiner, G., Flavell, D. M.,     Whitehouse, D. B., Nagl, S., Jackson, R., Taskinen, M. R., Frick, M.     H., Nieminen, M. S., Kesaniemi, Y. A., Pasternack, A., Humphries, S.     E., Syvanne, M., and the Diabetes Atherosclerosis Intervention Study     Investigators (2003). Progression of Atherosclerosis Is Associated     With Variation in the {alpha}1-Antitrypsin Gene. Arterioscler Thromb     Vasc Biol 23, 644-649. -   Tavor. S., Petit, I., Porozov, S., Goichberg, P., Avigdor, A.,     Sagiv, S., Nagler, A., Naparstek, E., and Lapidot, T. (2005).     Motility, proliferation and egress to the circulation of human AML     cells in transplanted NOD/SCID mice are elastase dependent. Blood     106, 2120-2127. -   Terashima, M., Murai, T., Kawamura, M., Nakanishi, S., Stoltz, T.,     Chen, L., Drohan, W., Rodriguez, R. L., and Katoh, S. (1999).     Production of functional human α1-antitrypsin by plant cell culture.     Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 52, 516-523. -   Virella, G., Wohltmann, H., Sagel, J., Lopes-Virella, M. F. L.,     Kilpatrick, M., Phillips, C. B., and Colwell, J. (1981). Soluble     immune complexes in patients with Diabetes Mellitus: Detection and     pathological significance. Diabetologia 21, 184-191. -   Weaver, A. M., Hussaini, I. M., Mazar, A., Henkin, J., and     Gonias, S. L. (1997). Embryonic Fibroblasts That Are Genetically     Deficient in Low Density Lipoprotein Receptor-related Protein     Demonstrate Increased Activity of the Urokinase Receptor System and     Accelerated Migration on Vitronectin. Journal of Biological     Chemistry 272, 14372-14379. -   Wei, X., Decker, J. M., Wang, S., Hui, H., Kappes, J. C., Wu, X.,     Salazar-Gonzalez, J. F., Salazar, M. G., Kilby, J. M., Saag, M. S.,     Komarova, N. L., Nowak, M. A., Hahn, B. H., Kwong, P. D., and     Shaw, G. M. (2003). Antibody neutralization and escape by HIV-1.     Nature 422, 307-312. -   Winkler, I. G., Hendy, J., Coughlin, P., Horvath, A., and     Levesque, J. P. (2005). Serine protease inhibitors serpina1 and     serpina3 are down-regulated in bone marrow during hematopoietic     progenitor mobilization. The Journal of Experimental Medicine 201,     1077-1088. -   Wolf, K., Muller, R., Borgmann, S., Brocker, E. B., and Friedl, P.     (2003). Amoeboid shape change and contact guidance: T-lymphocyte     crawling through fibrilar collagen is independent of matrix     remodeling by MMPs and other proteases. Blood 102, 3262-3269. -   Wright, S. D. and Meyer, B. C. (1986). Phorbol esters cause     sequential activation and deactivation of complement receptors on     polymorphonuclear leukocytes. J. Immunol. 136, 1759-1764.

The present invention is not to be limited in scope by the specific embodiments described herein. Indeed, various modifications of the invention in addition to those described herein will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description and the accompanying figures.

Patents, patent applications, publications, product descriptions, and protocols are cited throughout this application, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties for all purposes. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for increasing the number of functional lymphocytes, monocytes, or dendritic cells of comprising administering to a subject in need of such treatment a pharmaceutical composition containing full length, active α1 proteinase inhibitor (αl PI) having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 3 in an amount effective to increase the number of said cells.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein said α1 PI is produced recombinantly.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein said subject has a disease characterized by abnormalities in the number of cells of myeloid lineage selected from the group consisting of inflammation, microbial infection, and neutropenia.
 4. The method of claim 2 wherein said pharmaceutical composition further comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient.
 5. The method of claim 4 wherein said pharmaceutical composition is administered parenterally.
 6. The method of claim 5 wherein said pharmaceutical composition is administered by infusion.
 7. The method of claim 2 wherein said recombinant α1 PI is administered by ingestion.
 8. The method of claim 3 wherein said cells of myeloid lineage are selected from the group consisting of neutrophils, monocytes and dendritic cells.
 9. A method for mobilizing lymphoid-lineage progenitor cells into circulation in a patient in need of such treatment comprising administering to said patient a composition containing an amount of full length, active α1 PI having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 3 effective to mobilize said cells.
 10. The method of claim 9 wherein said patient has an abnormal or ineffective number of functional lymphocytes, monocytes, or dendritic cells.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein said subject has received a stem cell transplantation. 